Turn to a GUI history of other places! Since you said you would get extra points, hehe.
The origin of Ajiha history: August 30, 2005
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If you have been using computers for some years, you must know those operating systems without graphical interfaces, such as Microsoft's DOS, UNIX and the original Linux. To skillfully use these operating systems, users must firmly remember a large number of commands and reach a comfortable application level. At that time, mastering computer operation skills will definitely be awe-inspiring, but it is precisely because of the complexity of operation that it is difficult for computers to really enter the family and be mastered by ordinary users.
The computer industry has long been aware of this problem, and the graphical user interface (GUI) instead of the character interface has become a widely used graphical interface. Intuitive operation, users can easily master it without special training, which greatly reduces the threshold of computer application. After 1980s, various operating systems competed to introduce graphical interfaces, including Microsoft, Windows and Mac, and many other systems that disappeared later. In the mid-1990s, graphical interfaces began to really replace character interfaces as the standard, among which Microsoft's Windows 95 is a typical representative. After entering 2000, the original residual character interface mode of the operating system was completely cancelled, and the graphical interface was not satisfied with simple design, but developed in the direction of focusing on visual experience. Apple Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows XP are two pillars. After that, the graphical interface went to the era of perfection and personalization, all end users could participate in it and design a set of personalized interface appearance for themselves, while the industry turned its attention to the more distant future, hoping to adopt 3D brand-new visual interface in the future operating system.
In the following text, we will introduce the concept origin, implementation and detailed development process of graphical interface in detail, which will involve various operating systems.
From theoretical exploration to product prototype
The concept of GUI interface computer began in 1930s, when a man named "Vannevar Bush" put forward an intelligent device named "Memex", which he thought was similar to a desk, with two touchable displays, an input keyboard and a scanner. Through this device, users can access all human knowledge bases. At that time, computers were far from being produced, and the idea of Fannie Mae Bush was purely unfounded scientific fantasy and could never be realized. But it is undeniable that this idea is far-sighted, and it successfully depicts the computer form after half a century. Perhaps Microsoft's tablet was inspired by Memex's concept of direct touch operation.
Dr Douglas's NLS system
We can't confirm whether Microsoft borrowed from Fannie Bush's genius idea, but we can be sure that this idea played a vital role in inspiring the operating system to introduce GUI graphical interface. 1948, Douglas englebart (inventor of GUI and mouse) joined the national aviation advisory Committee (NACA, predecessor of NASA) after obtaining a bachelor's degree, but he was not satisfied with only engaging in some small projects with a narrow scope, but hoped that his work would benefit the whole world. On the way to work, he suddenly recalled the article about "Memex" written by Fannie Mae Bush and began to think about how to realize such a device. For the touch screen, Douglas naturally thought of cathode ray tube technology-Douglas was a radar soldier during World War II, when the radar display screen used cathode ray tube as the core device for signal display. Douglas also believes that the information on the screen should exist in the form of graphics, and the operator can freely choose the content he is interested in within any range of the screen. Douglas was excited about the idea, but he never imagined that the first prototype system would really appear in 20 years.
Figure 1 Dr. douglas engelbart is known as "the father of Guangxi" and "the father of rats".
Later, Douglas left his job and went to the University of California, Berkeley, where he received his doctorate in electronic engineering and computer science. 1956. Later, Dr. Douglas entered the famous Stanford Research Institute, during which he could really turn his ideas into reality. 1968, dr Douglas finally succeeded. He publicly demonstrated his "NLS" graphics system, including a circular CRT display, a keyboard and a mouse. Its name "NLS" is the abbreviation of "online system" because it is based on the networking of several computers. NLS can display a graphical interface, and users can freely select content on the whole screen by moving the mouse to realize paperless office. Although this scene seems normal today, it is definitely a revolutionary new concept in 1968, so that when Dr. Douglas demonstrated NLS system, many TV stations reported it in real time, which caused a sensation. Dr Douglas is also called "the father of GUI interface", but he also has another equally resounding title: "the father of mouse"-the mouse he developed for NLS system later became one of the standard input devices of computers, which deeply influenced the development of computers.
Fig. 2 NLS system with monitor, keyboard and mouse.
Alto computer and Smalltalk language
Dr Douglas's NLS system shocked the outside world, and paperless office became a hot topic in many enterprises, which made Xerox deeply uneasy. Printing equipment is the lifeline of Xerox. After the appearance of NLS system, Xerox was worried that the arrival of "paperless era" would have a great impact on them and realized the "risk". Xerox executives think it is best to master this technology first and become a leader in new fields, so they set up the famous Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in 1970 to take charge of this matter. Although the risk of paperless was later proved to be redundant (after entering the PC era, office paper was not reduced, but consumed more), the decision made by Xerox executives at that time was still very wise. PARC has become the best research institute in the world, with first-class equipment and talents. Almost all of them are doctors or the best experts in their respective fields. Naturally, PARC has produced many achievements, including the GUI interface of the operating system, and also nurtured many top scientific and technological figures, including bob metcalfe, the founder of 3Com, and Charles Simonyi, the chief architect of Microsoft. Of course, these are the latter.
PARC Center has carried out several research projects at the same time, and laser printer is one of its first published achievements, which is regarded as a revolutionary breakthrough in printing technology. However, the laser printer invented by PARC cannot work independently, and it must have a graphics computer to provide it with documents to be printed. At that time, there was no such computer. PARC's computer scientists just do it themselves. They got inspiration from Dr. Douglas' NLS system and invented Alto computer in 1973. Alto is regarded as a milestone in the development history of GUI interface of operating system. It has windows and drop-down menus, which can be flexibly operated by the mouse, which really breaks the man-machine barrier that has plagued the industry for a long time and greatly improves the operation efficiency, thus forming the WIMP standard in the industry. There is an episode that must be mentioned: Charles Simonyi, a student from Berkeley, was lucky enough to participate in the development project of Alto. He wrote a text editor for Alto Computer: "Bravo". Bravo changed the way of information organization and presentation, and was recognized as the first word processing software of "what you see is what you get".
1975, PARC officially opened Alto computer to the public. At that time, a large number of elites visited. During the visit of Citibank representatives, Simone showed them the cooperation process of Alto computer, Bravo software, network and laser printer. Bravo uses various fonts to edit files, which are displayed on the screen of Alto computer, and then the relevant data is transmitted to the printer through Ethernet, and the printed files look exactly like those displayed on the screen. The concept of "what you see is what you get" came into being, which was 1 1 year earlier than Apple Macintosh, but it was the latter that became the standard.
Along with Alto computer, Smalltalk language was born. Smalltalk is the first object-oriented programming language, which has automatic memory management function similar to Java. It is not too much to describe this great achievement in any language. PARC uses Smalltalk language to design graphical environment, and brings many brand-new GUI programming concepts. All the visual development platforms we see today can be regarded as the ideological derivatives of Smalltalk. After the invention of Alto computer, many developers of PARC hope to commercialize it-Alto has a bigger screen, a mouse and a graphical interface than later Macs, and has a bright future. Unfortunately, Xerox has always been adhering to the style of "the bigger the product, the better", and is only willing to produce complex and expensive machines, and is not interested in Alto computers. Alto computer costs $50,000 and laser printer costs $200,000. The latter naturally became the new direction of Xerox, while Alto Computer was ignored by Xerox executives. Subsequently, the members of PARC insisted on improving Alto for many times, and finally developed Alto III, but the developer's strong willingness to commercialize was once again rejected by Xerox. It was not until 198 1 that Xerox introduced a simplified version of Alto computer-STAR8010 document processor to the market at the price of 17000 USD. Although STAR 80 10 is very different from Alto, it has excellent document processing ability, and multiple documents can be juxtaposed on the screen without overlapping, so users can be very comfortable. Unfortunately, at this time, Xerox has missed the best opportunity to seize the commanding heights, and Star 80 10 has not received much response in the market. More unfortunately, many PARC elites are dissatisfied with Xerox and find another way out. A large number of elites joined Apple Computer Company to take risks, but Charles Simonyi, who developed Bravo software, went to the unknown Microsoft Company at that time, and later he became one of the founders of Microsoft.
Figure 3 Xerox Alto Computer
Figure 4 Alto's file manager
Fig. 5 Xerox Star 80 10 document processor
The Birth of Apple Lisa/Macintosh
Xerox failed to bring Alto to the market in time and missed the opportunity. Finally, it was only used by Xerox employees, and it was not promoted externally. However, Alto became the pioneer of graphical operating system, and later Apple Lisa Computer and Microsoft Windows 1.0 can be regarded as the direct inheritance of Alto's thought. In terms of graphics operating system, compared with Microsoft, Apple is obviously one step ahead. At that time, Apple Computer, founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Woznick, was recognized as the pioneer of personal computers, but they didn't make much achievements in graphical interface. Apple operates entirely on the command line. Although Apple is equipped with a simple graphical interface, it does not have a mouse and relies entirely on keyboard input, while retaining the traditional command line operation. Fortunately, Xerox's Alto was not introduced to the market, and IBM was ignorant in the field of personal computers, so Apple II became the only personal computer with a "graphical interface" at that time, and Apple certainly made a fortune and entered an unprecedented stage of rapid development. As a dynamic young enterprise, Apple has become a paradise that many elites yearn for. Many engineers who left the Xerox PARC center later joined Apple, and these engineers were able to continue their previous work. In this way, alto computer and Smalltalk language appeared on the computer stage in another form.
From a technical point of view, Apple's second-generation computer can't compare with the contemporary Alto anyway. PARC's former engineers have a deep understanding of this. Under their arrangement, Steve Jobs, one of the founders of Apple Computer Company, was able to enter the PARC Research Center. He saw the legendary Alto computer and watched the related demonstration. Jobs learned the whole concept of Alto computer in detail, and he was deeply shocked by the completely graphical interface and the flexible input method of the mouse. After that, Jobs became a faithful believer in GUI interface, and he was determined to develop a similar computer and put it on the market-this happened in 1979, and Jobs' visit directly changed the later "Lisa" computer project, so the development direction of PC and operating system was reversed to the "right" direction.
In order to complete Lisa, the developer simulated a variety of different interface prototypes on Apple Ⅱ Ⅱ computer, including a set of "twenty questions" scheme based on task interface and a scheme with four columns of files browsing. The latter design was later used for reference by NeXTStep system and Mac OS X system. But Lisa's development team finally chose the icon-based display scheme. All files, folders and applications are represented by icons, and it also has a drop-down menu bar, which is placed at the top of the screen. If we compare the current Mac OS X system, we will find that its basic elements are still inherited from Lisa. In addition, Lisa computer has many innovations, such as the introduction of keyboard shortcut commands, some frequently operated menu commands can be realized by shortcut keys, and the scroll bar replaces the original fixed-height pane; Trash can support drag-and-drop function, and those unnecessary files can be deleted directly by dragging with the mouse. In addition, the concepts of foreground and background of menus are introduced, and those menus that have not been selected for the time being are all light "grayed", so that users can see at a glance when operating. Lisa naturally introduced the mouse, but Apple made great changes to the mouse operation-at first, it used a pc mouse on Alto computer, and later Xerox's Star 80 10 document processor was simplified to a two-button mode, while Apple Lisa used a mouse with only one button, in order to simplify the operation (Apple obviously underestimated the user's ability to master technology). But the icon-based GUI system needs at least two mouse operations, such as selecting and running. For this reason, Apple invented the double-click operation, which later became the standard of all GUI operating systems, even though the mouse now has a large number of buttons.
Lisa computer has created many unprecedented GUI concepts, most of which are still in use today. We know that both Xerox Alto computer and Star 80 10 document processor have the concept of icon, but Lisa is the first computer to actually represent files with icons. In Lisa system, icon files are organized by address paths, and an independent display window will pop up every time a path is opened. Lisa's "drag-and-drop operation" is also a great invention, which realizes many complicated operations in an intuitive and natural way. For example, we can select files and folders and drag them to other windows to complete the copy operation; In addition, Lisa has a lot of ingenious designs, which can effectively simplify the operation, such as allowing users to specify the program to be executed for each file. As long as you double-click the file, it will be automatically opened by the corresponding program. Almost all these details were passed down in the later GUI operating system.
Lisa project started at 1979, but it was not officially developed until 1983. But the problem followed. The price of this computer is set at100000 USD. Although it was not expensive at that time, it was still unacceptable to a large number of users. If the user group is not wide enough, it is unrealistic to develop software specifically for Lisa platform. To this end, Apple decided to develop a cheap version of Lisa, the famous "Macintosh" project. Macintosh was introduced to the market in 1984. It has a 9-inch monochrome screen, 128KB memory and a floppy disk drive, which retains a lot of GUI functions of Lisa computer. However, it doesn't have multitasking ability and can't switch between two programs flexibly. The price is only $2,495. The release of Macintosh caused a great sensation. It's the first time people have seen a computer with such a beautiful interface, heard that it can make such a wonderful sound, and experienced such a simple operation of the computer for the first time. The performance of Macintosh is brilliant, and Apple has reached the highest point in the history of development. Although Apple has been going downhill since then, the subsequent versions of Macintosh don't seem to be particularly affected. Even when Apple was on the verge of bankruptcy in the middle and late 1990s, Mac OS 8 and Mac OS 9 were not backward in technology.
Figure 6 lists some top Lisa computers.
Figure 7 Graphical user interface of Macintosh system 1
Strong GUI movement
In addition to Apple's Lisa, there were many GUI operating systems in the 1980s. Include VisiOn of VisiCorp, Windows 1.0 and 2.0 of Microsoft, Desktop of Tandy, GEM of Digital Research, IBM OS/2, NeXT Step of Next Company, X Window developed for UNIX, etc. But with the exception of Windows, NeXTStep and X Window, other GUIs have not been continuously developed. Next, we will introduce the characteristics and development of these GUIs in the order in which they appear.
Fig. 8 User interface of vision system
Visual operating system
While Apple is working on developing Lisa graphical interface, VisiCorp is also doing the same work. VisiCorp was the founder of the world's first spreadsheet software VisiCalc and the strongest PC application software enterprise at that time. However, VisiCorp did not manufacture its own computer, but developed an operating system with a graphical user interface for IBM PC. This product was named "Vision" and released at 1983.
Although VisiOn has also realized graphical operation, it has many disadvantages: First, the price of VisiOn is too expensive, and the price of a single set of software reaches $65,438 +0495, which is unacceptable to many users; Secondly, vision requires too much hardware. It can only work on a PC-XT computer with 5 12KB memory and a hard disk mouse, which keeps many unqualified users out. What's more, vision is not outstanding in design. For example, only 640×200 monochrome graphics mode is supported, and the trace based on text is not separated. For example, VisiOn can't support the icon function at all, and users have to click the text label to open files or execute programs. Visually, VisiOn only supports fixed-width font display, which is not only obviously inferior to Apple's Lisa and Macintosh, but even inferior to Xerox's Alto and Star 80 10. In addition, VisiOn's support for the mouse is extremely limited. It can't even support the diagonal movement of the mouse, but can only make the cursor move horizontally or vertically-this is equivalent to the level of Dr. Douglas' NLS system in 1968. Although the technology was far behind Lisa, it was the only GUI graphic operating system that PC could use at that time. Unfortunately, when Bill Gates saw the real threat that VisiOn brought to DOS, he launched a classic propaganda war. Microsoft tries to publicize the benefits of Windows system to users, and strives to win users psychologically and spiritually. The purpose of this propaganda war is to break up potential opponents, not to promote sales. In fact, at that time, Windows not only didn't go on the market, but also almost didn't start designing. But Microsoft's publicity is very effective. When VisiOn began to sell, VisiCorp was surprised to find that few people accepted this product because almost the whole world was waiting for Microsoft's "Windows". VisiCorp was easily defeated by Microsoft, and at the same time VisiOn came to an end, and there was no successor to continue its life.
Fig. 9 shows the interface of window 1.0 1, which can support the boundary adjustment of two tiled windows.
Microsoft Windows has started.
VisiOn is undoubtedly a very failed product, but it forces Microsoft to develop more competitive products than it. At first, Microsoft named its GUI system "Interface Manager", but later chose a more vivid and friendly name Windows. The prototype system of Windows was launched in 1983, and its interface looks like a mixture of VisiOn and Microsoft Word for DOS ——Microsoft Word for DOS was born out of the Bravo editor of Alto computer, which is a masterpiece brought by Simone after joining Microsoft.
Two years later, Windows 1.0 was officially released. Compared with the prototype system, Windows 1.0 is obviously mature and has the characteristics of popular GUI, such as page scroll bar, window controller, menu, etc. However, there are still many differences between Windows and other GUIs in detail design, for example, every application has a menu bar, and windows are tiled instead of overlapping. There was an interesting episode. The designer from Xerox PARC Center thinks that tile design is better than overlapping design, but Bill Gates himself doesn't think so, so he decided that the future Windows GUI should adopt the way of overlapping windows. This set of rules has been used since Windows 2.0 came into effect. However, Windows 1.0 still adopts the tile design. Of course, it is not an independent operating system, but a GUI graphical interface designed for DOS system. Because of the weak function of Windows 1.0, most users are still used to using the command line.
Figure 10 Tandy desktop system appearance
Tandy desktop graphical user interface system
Many people may not have heard the name Tandy Computer Company, but in 1984, this company also released its own GUI system deskmate. But the deskmate's support for the mouse is very limited. Mainly rely on keyboard operation, using tiled windows. Of course, deskmate is difficult to use, and in sales, it has been bundled with Tandy's own computer and has not been publicly promoted.
Digital research launches GEM GUI
At the end of 1985, digital research company introduced a graphical environment called GEM. Like Windows, it is a GUI designed for DOS system, but it can also work on Atari's ST computer (atari was founded by bushnell, a graduate of the University of Utah in the United States, on 1972, engaged in the research and development of computer software and hardware for home entertainment, and can be said to be the originator of today's electronic game machines). In fact, GEM is also operated by a large number of R&D personnel of Xerox PARC, but unfortunately, it is too similar to Apple's Lisa/Macintosh GUI. The same icon indicates that the menu bar is placed at the top of the screen and the mouse operation is very similar. Angry Apple sued Digital Research for infringement. Results Digital research was forced to modify the GEM version of PC DOS, but strangely, the GEM GUI of Atari computer was not affected.
Figure 1 1 Gem 1 Graphic environment running on Atari ST computer.
Figure 12 workbench 1.0 GUI graphical environment
Amiga workbench graphic environment
Amiga computers produced by Commodore once swept the market. It uses multiprocessor technology supporting multimedia graphics and audio, and has excellent video and audio quality, which also makes it widely superior to other computers at the same time. In addition, Amiga's operating system can support multi-tasking environment, which even Apple, Microsoft and IBM are ashamed of. However, in terms of graphic environment, Amiga adopted a set of GUI named "Workbench", which was quite eye-catching at that time: it supported the window to move up and down, the window automatically appeared in the foreground when it was selected or moved, the top menu bar could be hidden automatically, and the right mouse button could be activated. However, due to poor management of Commodore, Workbench GUI does not have the following functions.
Figure 13 GEOS GUI is somewhat similar to GEM and Lisa/Macintosh.
Berkely Softworks releases GEOS
1986, Berkely Softworks released GEOS graphical GUI, which has many similarities with GEM GUI in Trouble, but its main application objects are computer products such as Apple II and Commodore 64. It's a pity that GEOS came out too late. At this time, faced with the strong competition between Microsoft and Windows, natural GEOS later disappeared.
Figure 14 Windows version 2.0, adding maximize and minimize buttons, and using overlapping layout of windows.
Microsoft Windows 2.0
1987, Microsoft upgraded Windows GUI to version 2.0. Windows 2.0 abandoned the window tile design, turned to the popular overlapping mode, and used a lot of GUI elements similar to Macintosh, which was far more mature than the previous version of 1.0. Apple was shocked after seeing it. They did not hesitate to file a lawsuit, arguing that Windows 2.0 violated Macintosh's "Look &; Feel "visual patent, Apple claims that the" overall visual appearance "of Macintosh is protected by copyright. Although Windows is different from Macintosh in some window details, it looks very similar on the whole. The court then asked Apple to provide specific evidence, and Apple submitted 189 GUI elements. Unfortunately, Apple seems to forget that 179 elements have been licensed in Microsoft's Windows 1.0 protocol (in exchange, Microsoft develops office software for Macintosh platform), and the remaining 10 elements are basically not protected by copyright, or are not original by Apple, or are the only possible universal implementations. The lawsuit finally lasted until 1994, and Apple fell into a complete failure, and nothing could stop the rise of Microsoft.
It is necessary to mention an interesting episode: during the period when Apple sued Microsoft for infringement, Xerox also filed a lawsuit against Apple. Xerox claims to be the real owner of GUI copyright. From the historical development, Xerox is indeed the source of all GUI development. However, this case was also rejected at the technical level.
Figure15 Arthur GUI of Acorn Company set several firsts at that time.
Arthur of 32-bit RISC platform
Also in 1987, Acorn Computer Company released the world's first microcomputer-Acorn A305/A 310 with 32-bit RISC processor (8MHz), and they also designed a GUI named "Arthur" for this computer. Like most other GUIs, Arthur has a scroll bar that allows users to scroll pages to get more content, and it also has many groundbreaking works. Arthur can display 16 colors, and it is also the first GUI product that can support anti-aliasing font display. Moreover, a special "dock" is designed at the bottom of the screen, where shortcuts or tools of common programs can be placed to facilitate users to operate the computer quickly. Many years later, Apple also introduced this design when designing Mac OS X, which is another story. Arthur was later renamed "RISC OS" by Acorn, and developed to version 4.0, but he did not survive in the brutal competition.
It is necessary to digress here. As we know, many GUI products released in the mid-1980s and before adopted fixed-width fonts, such as GEM, Windows 1.0, Amiga Workbench, Arthur of Acorn and so on. But in fact, these GUIs can support proportional fonts in applications. Designers didn't use the same design in the operating system because the resolution of computer monitors was too low at that time-most computing monitors had a resolution of only 640×200, and even Macintosh could only support a vertical resolution of 384 pixels at the highest. With the development of technology and the continuous improvement of display resolution, GUI generally adopts proportional display font as a new standard.
Figure 16 NeXTSep operating system is far more refined than the previous one.
Jobs builds the next step.
1985, Jobs left the Apple Company he founded and set up a computer company called "NeXT". Jobs hopes to build a truly future-oriented ultimate computer, and developing a new graphics operating system is of course the top priority. The work of NeXT Company is named "NeXTStep", and the development work starts from 1985 and ends at 1988. Technically, NeXTStep is indeed an excellent graphical operating system: all GUI elements are decorated with three-dimensional shadows, including windows, menus, buttons and so on. Change the simple style of the previous GUI; NeXTStep takes the lead in setting an "X" symbol in the upper right corner of the window as a shortcut to close the window. NeXTStep introduces a vertical menu bar design. When users click on a specific logo menu bar in the upper left corner of the screen, it will drop down, while clicking on the menu bar in other parts of the screen will automatically close, which is quite convenient to operate. NeXTStep also introduced the Dock dock bar, but unlike Arthur GUI, this Dock bar can be placed on any side of the screen (the default position is the right side of the screen).
Because the visual effect is greatly improved, NeXTStep also puts forward "harsh" requirements for hardware. You need a high-resolution display, otherwise NeXTStep will not work properly.
The GUI interface of figure 17 OS/2 1. 1 can only support monochrome icons, and even the later version 1.2 did not introduce the popular color design at that time.
1988 IBM OS/2 was born.
IBM's OS/2 was also born in 1988. Originally designed as a substitute for DOS, it was jointly operated by IBM and Microsoft. At that time, Microsoft didn't have the courage to say no to IBM, but they didn't have any outstanding performance in OS/2 development. OS/2 version 1.0 is based on text command line operation, while version 1. 1 adds a graphical GUI. In the above picture, you can see that it is quite similar to Microsoft Windows 2.0, but its technical level is several grades behind the NeXTStep that appeared at the same time.
Figure 18 1998 Releasing KDE Desktop Environment
X window system for UNIX
The GUI trend inevitably spread to the field of monolithic UNIX. As early as 1984, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) cooperated with DEC to develop a distributed window environment on UNIX system, which is the famous "X Window System" project. 1986, MIT officially released X Window, which has since become the standard window environment of UNIX. Then, the X Association, which is fully responsible for project development, was established, and X Window entered a new stage. At the same time, many UNIX vendors are also open on the X Window prototype.