The Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties were a tragic era of social darkness, political turmoil, and people's suffering in Chinese history. With the disintegration of the Han Empire, while warlords were separatist and royal families were fighting each other, the nomadic peoples in the north were also forced by the increasingly cold climate to go south to compete with the farming peoples for living space. Chinese history thus began a four-hundred-year-old war. War. Civil strife and chaos pushed the people into the abyss of misery. At this time, political darkness and social misery were relatively rare in the thousands of years of Chinese civilization history. In sharp contrast to this, the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties were an era of spiritual liberation and personality expansion. It was an era of "extreme freedom and liberation in spirit, the most wisdom and the most enthusiasm" [1 ] Its criticism and transformation of previous Chinese culture gave Chinese culture a gloriously diverse look. Its basic sign is that it has led to the collapse of the rigid model of cultural development with Confucianism as the core and Confucianism as the core since the mid-Western Han Dynasty, and replaced it with a lively cultural diversity. At the same time, people pursue and develop the meaning and value of individual existence from different angles. This is a far-reaching ideological turn in the history of Chinese ideological and cultural development. It is the old man of history who uses irrational and barbaric impact to destroy the strong fortress of the old civilization, thereby preparing conditions for the growth of the roots of the new civilization.
Once upon a time, Confucianism of the Han Dynasty, which centered on "reception between heaven and man", theoretically demonstrated the sanctity and unshakability of the ruling order of a unified empire, thus making itself sacred. and immovable. But the good times did not last long, and what followed was that the "influence of heaven and man" appeared to be nondescript through arbitrary deductions from the theology of Jinwen classics scholars. The opposition of modern classics - ancient classics, which focused on "exegesis of famous objects", also It soon became rigid, cumbersome and broken. Confucianism's own shortcomings in its development put it in danger of shrinking. The turbulent historical vortex since the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties has intensified the decline of traditional Confucianism and promoted the growth of new cultural factors.
1. The decline of Confucian classics and the destruction of etiquette
The loss of Confucian classics and the crisis of famous religions marked that Confucianism in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties had fallen into an unprecedented crisis. Historical records: "In more than a hundred years, Confucianism has been exhausted" ("Book of Song Dynasty·Zang Tao Biography"), "Those who are Confucian will overthrow the few" ("Book of Liang Dynasty·Biography of the Scholars"). In the situation where the rulers of the Han Dynasty combined the study of Confucian classics with official positions, the high-ranking families had studied Confucian classics for many generations, and the scholars were more "unconventional in their country style". However, in the Wei and Jin Dynasties, "the public ministers and scholar-bureaucrats were rarely proficient in the Confucian classics" ("Southern History·The Scholars") "Biography"), even Cao Mao, the king of a country, unceremoniously questioned the Confucian classics and principles. It is no wonder that "a child of a high family is ashamed and unethical." In the troubled years of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, when "the achievements have not yet been seen, the setting sun may flow to the west, and the time is not with me, but the clouds are floating" ("Cao Pi and Wu Zhi Shu"), people showed unprecedented disappointment with Confucianism since the Han Dynasty. In parallel with the loss of Confucianism, the vital moral norms, etiquette and procedures advocated in the Confucian system are also in an unprecedented crisis. The standardization of the roles of monarch, minister, father and son is the fundamental essence of Confucian etiquette and law. The proposal of the "Three Cardinal Guidelines and Five Constant Rules" is the symbol of the finalization of the etiquette and law doctrine. The belief that "the king is the guideline for ministers, the father is the guideline for his son, and the husband is the guideline for his wife" has great influence on Chinese culture has had a profound impact. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the rules of etiquette between monarchs, ministers, fathers and sons were the first to be severely criticized. Ruan Ji said in "The Biography of Mr. Master": "Without a king, things are settled for the common people; without ministers, everything is in order. ... When the king is established, cruelty flourishes; when ministers are established, thieves are born. He controls the etiquette and laws, and binds the people... exhausting the world. The end of all things is to serve the endless desires of sound and color, this is not the way to support the people. "In Ruan Ji's view, the existence of monarchs and ministers is not a good thing! On the contrary, only when there is no king and no ministers can the world be peaceful. Bao Jingyan even advocated the elimination of the monarch and the establishment of a utopian society with "no king and no ministers" because the monarch is nothing more than "cruel and lustful, slaughtering the world." This kind of criticism of the sacred monarchy was sharp and shocking. It not only triggered the people of the time to think deeply about the unreasonable reality, but also provided ideological materials and theoretical courage for later generations to criticize traditional Chinese political culture. . Concerning the Confucian father-son theory of "the father is the guide for the son," Kong Rong criticized: "What kind of relationship should the father have to the son? In terms of its original meaning, it is actually the result of lust. How does the son treat the mother in ridicule? For example If you put something in a bottle, it will leave you when it comes out."
This kind of wild and arrogant words had an unprecedented impact and challenge on the Confucian order of monarch, minister, father and son. At the same time, the existence of this kind of words also reflected the actual appearance of the broken etiquette and law in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. It must be pointed out that as a moral principle and etiquette order, the basic negative aspects of etiquette and law embody the restrictions and constraints on people's thoughts and behaviors. In the order of etiquette, only the human network relationship exists, and there is no individual as an individual. The independent value of the individual is always regulated as an objective existence. Human subjectivity is completely dissolved in the hierarchical status of high and low. Among them, the constraints on women are particularly profound. Therefore, we can just use the The understanding and concern about the fate of women can be used to analyze the basic appearance of Chinese history at that time. Women in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties had a relatively broad space for activities and a humane personal image. This was the result of a relatively tolerant social atmosphere formed by the effective impact of diversified cultures on a dominant culture. Traditional Confucianism has lost its former power and ability to integrate society. With the chaotic and turbulent times, the authority of Confucian classics and Gangchang Mingjiao established in the Han Dynasty is helplessly slipping along the historical path of decline, facing unprecedented difficulties. .
2. Advocating inaction and being self-willed
The suffering in troubled times and the loss of Confucianism triggered the discussion of the meaning of life. The doubt and denial of external authority led to the awakening of inner personality. and pursuit, the metaphysics originated from Lao and Zhuang became popular during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. Compared with the construction of the royal order and the religious order that focus on reality, metaphysics appeals to infinite ontology, takes the pursuit of ideal personality as its central issue, transcends the impermanence of the chaotic world, and has a speculative and ethereal atmosphere. Cao Zhi's "Explanation of Sorrows" describes the treatment method of "Mr. Giving the child the medicine of inaction, giving the child a weak soup, stabbing the child with the mysterious needle, moxibustion the child with the simple recipe, arranging the child with the majestic sky, sitting on the child with the lonely bed, making Wang Qiao and the child wander away. Huang Gong and his son walked along singing songs, Zhuangzi and his son had a meal to nourish their spirits, Lao Dan and his son found a way to love each other, took a rest on the way, took advantage of the blue clouds and soared." This kind of indifference and freedom in life is the important spiritual orientation of the people of Wei and Jin Dynasties. The people of Wei and Jin Dynasty's pursuit of infinity reflected a different value style from traditional Confucianism. As Mr. Li Zehou pointed out, Confucianism determines individual value from interpersonal relationships, while what people in Wei and Jin Dynasties yearned for was to get rid of interpersonal relationships. Come to find "approval" and individual value. The "Yang Zhu" chapter of Liezi, written approximately in the third century AD, describes a conversation between Zichan and his brother, which clearly expresses the pursuit of individuality. Zichan was good at running the country, but his elder brother was fond of wine and his younger brother was lustful. Zichan persuaded them. "The reason why human beings are more valuable than animals is to be wise and considerate. When etiquette and justice are achieved through wisdom and consideration, fame and position will be achieved. If you are moved by emotion and indulge in lust, your life will be in danger." The answer Zichan got was, "If you are good at governing the outside world, things may not be cured and you will suffer. If you are good at governing the inside, things may not be chaotic and things will be chaotic. If you govern the outside world well, the law can be temporarily applied to a country, but it is not consistent with the country." People's hearts; if I govern the inside, I can apply it to the world, and the way of kings and ministers will cease. "Governing the outside is equivalent to obeying others, and governing the inside is to let oneself. The meaning of human existence is not to obey others but to let oneself." It is this spirit of self-willed personality that enabled people in the Wei and Jin Dynasties to promote a happy and willful spiritual style and promote people's natural feelings. Xiang Xiu declared in "Responses to Health Preservation" that "if there is life, there will be feelings, and if we call it emotion, we will get it naturally. If we exclude it from the outside, it will be the same as non-life, and why is it more valuable than life?" This kind of "emotion" is the same as life. The attitude of "emotion" has been raised to an unprecedented height. Comparing it with the traditional Confucian modesty style of "motivating emotions and stopping at etiquette and justice", the vigor, enthusiasm, vividness and vividness of people in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties can be seen. This theory is consistent with Shao He, one of the Five Sons of the Northern Song Dynasty, who said "Looking at things with things, they are nature; looking at things with me, they are emotions. Nature is public and bright, emotions are biased and dark" ("Guan Wu Wai Chapter") - this theory is very different. The influence of Chinese cultural spirit is particularly profound - in comparison, the suppression and imprisonment of human nature shown by the latter is clearly exposed. In the eyes of people in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, emotion is the basic element of human beings, so it is completely natural to boldly express human emotions. "Shishuo Xinyu·Huodong" records: "Wang Anfeng's wife, Chang Qing Anfeng. Anfeng said, 'My wife, my son-in-law, is disrespectful to etiquette, and I will not return to you in the future.'" The woman said, "I love you dearly, so that's why I love you dearly." "Qingqing, if I don't Qingqing, who should be Qingqing?" Suiheng listened.
In Wang Anfeng's view, the Confucian "propriety" of "the feeling of lust does not depend on appearance, and the privacy of banquet does not depend on movement and stillness" is not disrespectful, and "I don't Qingqing, who should Qingqing?" is even more obvious. The humanity of Xianji who is confident and confident. Ruan Ji lost his mother, but he ate and drank without any taboos. When his mother was buried, he "vomited several liters of blood." His love for his mother was deep in his heart. With such true love, why should he hinder eating meat? From the perspective of people in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, cumbersome etiquette systems tended to only focus on formality. The thick and rigid appearance concealed and melted people's true temperament, which often led people to pursue inherent procedures and superficial effects of things. A cultural model, over time, has caused people to be hypocritical and cautious, even to the point of hypocrisy. Therefore, Wang Bi said, "The more you admire benevolence and righteousness, the more fake it becomes." "The more skillful you are, the more subtle the fakeness becomes." Therefore, the role of "benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and filial piety" is not fundamental. It may be of some use, but it is It's just "low morality", which is still far from the original. What is the origin? Wang Bi said, "The origin lies in inaction, and the mother lies in the nameless. If you abandon the origin and abandon the mother, even though the merit is great, it will be ineffective; although the name is beautiful, it will be false." (Note on Chapter 38 of "Laozi") This is objectively true. Deconstruct the authority of Confucian etiquette and law.
The people of Wei and Jin Dynasty's "appreciation of emotions" not only broke through the Confucian model of a modest gentleman who "motivates emotions and stops based on etiquette and justice", but also provides a philosophical basis for the rationalization of emotions. The essence of "approving emotions" lies in the pursuit of the nature of human nature, and the essence of "Tao"'s inaction lies in "following nature". Therefore, "approving emotions" is both the nature of human beings and the nature of "Tao". This is simply looking for heavenly principles for people's "approval of emotions". Driven by this spiritual philosophy, the behavior of conforming to nature and adapting to the mood has become the pursuit of people in the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and became popular among the scholars of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. The culture of "letting go and letting go", or even the wild and absurd behaviors of some scholars, are just a way of "following nature". Through their alienation, what we feel is clearly a different kind of new cultural atmosphere. A kind of straightforward and true feelings that express one's true self, inspire one's will to life, and find the value of life. Its value lies not only in their discovery and promotion of human nature, but also in their courageous practical character that is not afraid of vulgarity. Appreciating natural scenery and natural scenery is another way of "following nature". Nature is beautiful because of its naturalness. Landscapes are "quality and spiritual", which is a kind of silent and self-sufficient beauty. "There is great beauty." "without saying anything", which contains the "gods" that are connected with Tao. Since the heaven and earth have indescribable beauty, then it is a good idea to stay away from the hustle and bustle of the world, pick chrysanthemums on the east fence, "watch the return home, wave the five strings, wander the mind too mysteriously, and look up and feel content" (Ji Kang's "Giving Scholars to Enter the Army") Life destination.
The "inaction" and "following nature" of the Wei and Jin people reflected their individual spirit of pursuing ideal personality. They used their own theories and practices to express their natural temperament and personal values ??in the history of Chinese thought and culture. Shine for a while. What is particularly important is that they used constructive efforts to promote the Taoist personality ideal, which was "deposed" due to the dominance of Confucianism, into the spiritual world of intellectuals with unprecedented intensity, shaping the "Qing" in the spiritual world of Chinese intellectuals. , "virtual", "bright", "expressive", "simple" and "far" life interests make Chinese culture more diversified and rich.
3. The Immortal Pixian Buddha Came to the East
During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, religion spread across a vast space and time through the hotbed of suffering and chaos. Foreign Buddhism and Chinese native The Taoism of Taoism blends and confronts each other and conflicts with each other, opening up a new stage for the prosperity of Chinese culture.
Buddhism was introduced to China during the Han Dynasty. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, it entered the independent development stage of Sinicized Buddhism, such as Master Chengshi, Master Di Zheng, Master Pure Land, Master Three Commentaries, Master Shichong, and Four Buddhist Masters. It was divided into lawyers and later Buddhist sects were developed on the basis of these schools.
When Buddhism first entered China, it grew slowly in an environment of foreign culture with reservations and tolerance. People equated the Buddha, the "foreign god", with the Chinese "immortals": "transformation in a trance, Dispersed bodies, living or dying, able to be large or small, round or square, old or young, hidden or visible, walking through fire without being hurt, walking on an edge without being hurt, being unsullied by pollution, being unscathed by misfortune, being able to do what one desires. If he flies, he shines brightly when he sits, so he is called Buddha." ("Theory of Philosophy") In order to survive, Buddhism also relied on Huang Lao Taoism and metaphysics to promote itself.
By the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism began to really become popular in China. Buddhism's description of the boundless sea of ??suffering in reality gained strong support in the dark reality of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. The belief that people could be saved by converting to Buddhism gave people hope to escape from the sea of ??suffering. The teaching of "retribution of good and evil, reincarnation of life and death" makes people believe that the suffering in this life is the result of the karma of the previous life, and the results of the next life are the causes of this life. If existence is so reasonable, then let's sow the causes of the next life. In this way, the emotional turmoil of resentment and despair among people in reality was alleviated, and their souls were comforted. Buddhism spread rapidly through this hotbed of society. For a time, whether it was the lower class people, upper-class nobles, or emperors, belief in Buddhism became popular. Luoyang, the capital of the Northern Wei Dynasty, had 1,367 Buddhist temples in the city, and the number of monks, nuns, and dependents of the temples in the Liang Dynasty increased. Accounting for almost half of the household registrations in Liang Dynasty. "Princes and great lords, when looking at the retribution of life and death, they all lose their composure" and even go so far as to "exhaust their wealth to entertain the monks and go bankrupt to seek the Buddha".
Taoism, China’s native religion, has made great progress since its inception in the late Han Dynasty and the Southern and Northern Dynasties. Kou Qianzhi, a Taoist from Songshan Mountain in the Northern Wei Dynasty, and Lu Xiujing, a Taoist from Lushan Mountain in Liu Song Dynasty, used the power of the political power to rectify folk Taoism and for the first time The term "Taoism" was used to unify various Taoist sects. At the same time, a complete set of religious rituals and fasting programs gradually formed. The "mixed and diverse" sources of Taoist thought are rooted in the profound cultural soil of Chinese culture. It takes Taoist philosophy as its backbone, widely absorbs Confucian and Mohist ideas, and also incorporates the thinking results of astrologers, medical practitioners, and prophecies. , and integrated his own ideological system. It aims at immortality and guides people to enjoy the happiness of the world on the one hand, and at the same time, accumulate the capital to become immortal in parallel. So once you succeed, you can "fly lightly", enter the "cave heaven and blessed land", and continue to enjoy greater happiness. From the perspective of Taoism, this is not a unique patent for anyone. Everyone can achieve this ideal through correct practice. This largely satisfies people's pursuit of controlling their own destiny and their desire for harmony and ease in the turbulent years. Fu Shui Taoism at the lower level takes it as its own duty to impeach evil spirits and eliminate disasters. It adapts to the needs of the working people at the lower level and lays a broad social and psychological foundation for Taoism.
It is true that neither Buddhism nor Taoism has been smooth sailing in their spread and development. In particular, Buddhism, as a foreign culture, has encountered more setbacks and tribulations in its encounter with Chinese local culture. However, Buddhism has grown and grown with its own unique vitality and its way of survival adapted to the environment, and Chinese culture has grown with its inclusive mind. And the broad power of assimilation absorbs and transforms this strange plant of foreign culture, making it a beautiful scenery in the glorious spiritual garden of Chinese culture.
4. Conclusion
During the turbulent four hundred years of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Confucianism and Metaphysics, Buddhism and Taoism merged and conflicted with each other, giving rise to the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. The spectacular scene of multiculturalism conflicting with each other. In a sense, metaphysics, Taoism and Buddhism, which were born out of suffering, have been critics, supervisors and promoters of Confucianism from the very beginning. It defends against the atrophy and rigidity that may be caused by Confucianism being "fixed on one person", and at the same time, it transforms the heavy, solemn, and quiet character of Confucianism. From the standpoint of the ruler, Confucianism and Legalism, as the art of governing the country, are adhered to by any ruler who is not prepared to collapse. The difference is only in degree, light and shade. In traditional society, China It is a country with imperial power and autocratic power. Fundamentally speaking, Confucianism and Legalism as ruling ideas have profound political and cultural roots. Therefore, "Yang Confucianism and Yin Legalism" are the basic spirit of Chinese culture, as advocated by many commentators. In fact, in the history of Chinese culture, the cycle of repression and chaos has always been an extremely important chapter. In troubled times, the emphasis on ethics and governance, whether it is Legalism or Confucianism, varies from time to time. There is no clear distinction between "Confucianism or Legalism" here. The more common situation is that Confucianism and Legalism are emphasized in practical operations, that is, The so-called combination of kindness and power, lenient and fierce, may be said to be a mixture of overlord and king. From here, it is not difficult for us to see the historical role of Confucianism and Legalism as ruling ideas. In terms of actual utility, both play an irreplaceable role in the consolidation of power and regime in a specific historical period. However, in terms of ultimate value, Confucianism undoubtedly shows its benevolence more than Fa. Honest, and therefore more approachable and assimilating.
It defends the supreme power and the strict hierarchical order with a generous, benevolent and tender appearance. It is far more acceptable than the tiger-like "tyranny" of Legalism. What is especially important is that when Confucianism stands in front of the critics of Legalism, When someone accuses someone of being "mean, ungrateful, and unfaithful", they often give people a sense of justice. After all, China is a country that advocates "people's hearts" and "propriety" rather than "strategy" and "skills". In this way, in the pattern of Yang Confucianism and Yin Law, the status of Confucianism is further highlighted. In Chinese history, once the rulers gained the highest power, in order to safeguard their own vested interests, Confucianism was often pushed by the rulers to easily gain a central position. At the same time, other ideas became heresy. In this situation of "exclusiveness" that is tangible and intangible, conscious or unconscious, Confucianism has slowly become a stagnant water due to the lack of a tolerance and activation mechanism that can accommodate all rivers.
In the open era since the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Confucianism lost its former glory. In the Southern Dynasties, although Confucianism gradually revived, in the pattern of pluralistic thoughts, Confucianism still suffered from various influences. However, it was in this baptism of diverse thoughts that Confucianism achieved its own rebirth. The complexity and precision of Buddhism, the metaphysical speculation of metaphysics, and the ethereal transcendence injected new vitality into Confucianism in trouble. It formed a new cultural spirit that merged Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. It provided a source of thought for the opening of Song Dynasty's scholarship.
Mr. Qian Zhongshu discussed in "Tan Yi Lu": "When young people develop their talents, they develop Tang style; when they think deeply in the later years, they develop Song style." As it is said, then, in culture In history, during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, he was like a smart and naughty little naughty boy. He skipped school from the serious and rigid school in the Han Dynasty, skipped and walked on the road skipping school, breathing the fresh air outside to his heart's content. With his innocent heart, he perceives and appreciates the vast world around him, and does all kinds of things without teachers and rules in front of him. He was rarely punished severely. In a relatively tolerant atmosphere, he was able to develop a certain kind of free nature, and had a profound impact on Chinese culture, which ultimately had a noble character and the pursuit of ideals and even utopias. History often shows such an appearance. With the establishment and consolidation of a unified political power, there is a corresponding demand for ideological and cultural unity. The Qin Emperor "took law as teaching and officials as teachers" and burned books to harass Confucians; the Han Dynasty and Wu Dynasties only respected Confucianism and deposed hundreds of schools of thought; and even the late feudal society in China only respected Neo-Confucianism and the prevalence of literary inquisition. With the disintegration of the unified regime and the fragmentation of political unity, the unity of spiritual values ??is facing a profound crisis, and at the same time, new cultural and spiritual factors have been bred. The Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties were the huge shocks of the broken one-yuan society. In the midst of people's common psychological despair of "the impermanence of enlightenment and failure" and the doubt and criticism of the inherent unidimensional spiritual value, a vibrant and diverse spiritual culture has developed.