Historical Essay on the Hundred Days of Reform (the title is your own, you can extract about 800 from it, it is very simple)
In 1898 (the year of Wuxu in the lunar calendar), the Chinese Reformists implemented the reform with the support of Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty Revolutionary Movement. Also known as the Reform Movement of 1898 or 1898. After the Sino-Japanese Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, China’s national crisis became increasingly serious. The reformers Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Tan Sitong, Yan Fu and others hoped to implement political and economic reforms according to the model of Western countries and strive for national prosperity. The reformers organized societies, founded newspapers and periodicals, and set up schools in various places to publicize their reform ideas and were sponsored by a small number of bureaucrats. Guangxu accepted the reform plan of the reformists and promulgated the "Edict to clarify the state affairs (don't think I made a mistake, yes, it was "state affairs")" on June 11, 1898, announcing the reform and reform. Dozens of reform edicts were issued in 103 days. The main content of the New Deal is to advocate the establishment of new enterprises and reward inventions and creations; to establish a railway and mining administration to build railways to mine minerals; to abolish the eight-legged rule, to reform the policy theory, to open schools and to promote Western learning; to eliminate redundant personnel, reduce the old army, and retrain the navy and army. On September 21, Empress Dowager Cixi launched a coup, imprisoned Emperor Guangxu, and arrested the reformers. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao fled abroad, and the "Six Gentlemen" such as Tan Sitong, Kang Guangren, Lin Xu, Liu Guangdi, Yang Rui, and Yang Shenxiu were killed. All the New Deal was cancelled, and the "Hundred Days Reform" failed.
Hundred Days of Reform
[Edit this paragraph] Detailed introduction
Since April 23, the 24th year of Guangxu’s reign in the Qing Dynasty (June 11, 1898) It lasted 103 days from the time when Emperor Guangxu issued an edict to establish the state of affairs and decided to implement reforms until the sixth day of August of the same year, when Empress Dowager Cixi resumed "regulatory training".
On April 23, Emperor Guangxu resolutely promulgated the "Edict of Ming Dynasty" and decided to reform. From this day on, the sensational "Hundred Days Reform" in modern Chinese history began. On the 28th, Emperor Guangxu summoned Kang Youwei, then director of the Ministry of Works, at the Renshou Hall in the Summer Palace. This was the first meeting between their monarch and his ministers. Kang used this interview opportunity to reiterate his call for comprehensive reform. First of all, it is stated that China's national crisis is serious and has reached a critical point of life and death, and it cannot strengthen itself without changing the old ways. Guangxu agreed and said: Reform is absolutely necessary today. Kang also pointed out that in recent years there has been no talk of reform, but only a small amount of change but not complete change. If one of them is adopted but the other is not changed, the result will be in vain. He believed that if you want to change the law, you must first change the institutional laws, otherwise it will just be a change, not a reform, and asked Emperor Guangxu to "first open up the system and then change the law." He also said that he has studied the situation of reform in various countries. Western countries insist on rule after three hundred years. Japan has become strong in thirty years after the Meiji Restoration. He believes that as long as China seriously implements reform, it can be independent in three years. Emperor Guangxu thought that his explanation was very detailed. Kang asked again: "Since the emperor knew that reform was necessary, why did he not do it for so long and sit back and watch the country perish?" Guangxu looked outside the curtain and sighed: "What are the constraints!" Kang understood that Emperor Guangxu was worried about the obstruction of Empress Dowager Cixi, so he suggested " As far as the emperor's current power is concerned, he can do things that can be changed. Although he cannot change everything, a brief plan can be enough to save China." He pointed out that many ministers in the current dynasty are old-fashioned and conservative and do not understand the general trend of the world. If the emperor wants to change the law, he cannot rely on conservative ministers. He can only promote talented ministers, give them official positions, and allow them to write articles. If they have real talents and practical learning, they will be given Make special use of them and let them handle the New Deal. As for the conservative ministers, their original salaries can be maintained so that they have no fear of losing their positions, and they will not obstruct the New Deal. This was a compromising reform strategy designed by Kang Youwei for Emperor Guangxu when the contrast between old and new forces was huge. Kang also suggested that in the future, for any reform matters, please ask the emperor to issue more edicts to "express his intentions", so that even if the ministers are conservative, they will "have no way to refute". In order to select and cultivate talents, Kang also suggested the abolition of the eight-part essay system for recruiting scholars, emphasizing the translation of Western books and sending people to study and travel abroad; and answered questions such as how to raise funds to solve financial difficulties. Emperor Guangxu agreed with everything Kang said, and finally said: "You still have something to say, and you can state it in detail." Kang Youwei was very excited. Within this unusual hundred days, he and other reformers, Worried about the country's danger, he worked hard, repeatedly submitted petitions for the New Deal, frequently published his own reform books, and put forward many valuable suggestions for reform.
So far, the reformers' efforts to abolish stereotyped writing and recruit scholars have achieved significant results. They even "drink wine and celebrate together, thinking that eliminating the disadvantages of ignorant people for thousands of years is the first major event of the reform." However, this reform did not fundamentally abolish the imperial examination system, but only reformed the content and style of the examination. In the past, eight-legged essays were used to obtain scholars, and the examination contents were all based on the "Four Books" and "Five Classics". After the change to "Policy Theory" to obtain scholars, the "Four Books" and "Five Classics" were still retained, and only the knowledge of Chinese history, Western natural sciences, and politics and law was added. . On this point, there was no principled difference between the reformers and the Westernization bureaucrats. This was a concession that the reformers had to make considering the future of millions of Eight-legged Scholars; it also reflected their own failure to completely get rid of the shackles of the old classics. 2. Establish schools and promote Western learning. After the edict abolishing the eight-legged writing system for recruiting scholars was promulgated, Kang Youwei and other reformers repeatedly submitted memorials, advocating the establishment of modern chemistry schools across the country and transforming old-style academies into new-style schools to study both Chinese and Western learning. They received the support of Emperor Guangxu. The "Edict to Determine the Kingdom" issued on April 23 clearly ordered that the Capital University Hall be held first to "advocate for all provinces." On May 15, Chongqing approved the charter of the Capital University Hall proposed by the Prime Minister's Office, and appointed Sun Jia Nai to handle the affairs of the University. The Capital University Hall (the predecessor of Peking University) was officially opened. On the 22nd, he also ordered that all academies and private ancestral temples in all provinces, departments, prefectures, and counties should be converted into schools that study both Chinese and Western learning. Provincial capitals were converted into colleges and universities, counties were converted into middle schools, and prefectures and counties were converted into primary schools. Later, decrees were issued one after another, ordering each province to prepare specialized schools for mining, navy, agriculture, compilation, medicine, tea service, etc.; to set up book translation agencies to translate new foreign books, and to promote overseas travel and study tours. However, the governors of various provinces turned a blind eye to Emperor Guangxu's order and delayed implementation. As a result, only the Capital University was officially established and became the only remaining fruit of the 1898 Reform. Other places encountered various obstacles and took little action.
3. Economic reform. The leading idea of ??the reformers such as Kang Youwei on economic reform was to comprehensively transform agriculture, industry, and commerce according to the model of Western capitalist countries, so as to put China on the path of capitalist development. In terms of industry, emphasis is placed on rewarding inventions and creations and allowing private financing to set up factories. In terms of business, he criticized the feudal ruling class's "focusing on the basics and suppressing the weak" thinking, clarified the principle that "if business can prosper, the country will become strong and prosperous", and recommended the establishment of the Ministry of Commerce in China and the establishment of commerce bureaus in each province. In terms of agriculture, we emphasize that agriculture is the foundation and advocate the use of Western laws to govern agriculture. Emperor Guangxu accepted Kang Youwei's proposition and repeatedly issued economic reform orders, including the following contents: 1. Protect and reward agriculture, industry, and commerce, establish the State Administration of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce and the State Administration of Railways and Mining in Beijing, promote industry, encourage private investment, build railways, and mine Minerals; order each province to establish a commerce bureau (or agriculture, industry and commerce branch). 2. Order local officials in each province to adopt both Chinese and Western methods to effectively revitalize agriculture. 3. Reward scientific works and inventions, and promulgate 12 paragraphs of the "Regulations on Awarding for the Promotion of Craftsmanship", which stipulate that those who write new books, innovate laws, and make new devices will be rewarded with official positions or patents. 4. Set up post offices in the capital and various trading ports, and abolish post stations. 5. Prepare the national budget and final accounts, which will be published by the Ministry of Household Affairs on a monthly basis. 6. Cancel the parasitic privileges of the Manchus and allow them to earn their own living, etc. Except for Chen Baozhen, the governor of Hunan, who was serious about handling the new policies, the governors of various provinces turned a deaf ear and made excuses. For example, the provinces had been delaying the establishment of a bureau of commerce. Emperor Guangxu was extremely angry and issued a strict edict to reprimand Liu Kunyi, the governor of Liangjiang and Tan Zhonglin (1822-1905), the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi. But until the coup broke out, economic reforms had little effect.
4. Political reform. It includes two aspects: 1. Official reform. During the Hundred Days Reform, Kang Youwei's most important proposal for political reform was to establish an institutional bureau as a deliberation body to renegotiate all political systems; and to establish 12 bureaus in the central government as the executive agency for the implementation of the New Deal. Although this idea was supported by Emperor Guangxu, it was desperately opposed by die-hard ministers and could not be realized. Another important idea of ??Kang Youwei's reform of the official system was to distinguish between "officials" and "chai", that is, senior ministers in high positions should be regarded as empty officials, while important errands to do practical things must appoint knowledgeable talents, which is the so-called "prioritizing senior officials with high rank," "Recruiting talents through employment"; advocating a cautious attitude when dealing with the reform of the official system and the reduction of redundant departments.
However, Emperor Guangxu, who had been suppressed by the die-hards of the Later Party for a long time, wanted to punish the Later Party ministers during the reform, so he did not fully follow Kang Youwei's advice, but adopted the redundancy proposal proposed by the former Taipusi Shaoqing Cen Chunxuan (1861-1933). On the recommendation of the official, an edict was issued on July 14, ordering the abolition of idle yamen such as Zhanshifu, General Administration Department, Guanglu Temple, Honglu Temple, Taichang Temple, Taipu Temple, Dali Temple; Hubei and Guangdong were abolished in other provinces. , the governors of the three provinces of Yunnan (the governors of these three provinces and Fu Tongcheng), the governor of Donghe, and the grain roads that are not responsible for transportation and the salt roads that are only responsible for distribution. Officials such as Zuo Er and other officials in each province who have no local responsibilities will be eliminated. . These redundant government officials should have been eliminated, but due to the lack of proper arrangements for the future of a large number of laid off officials in advance, the contradictions intensified unprecedentedly, and the conservative party hated the reformers even more bitterly. The coup is coming. This is one of the manifestations of the reformists' impatience and lack of strategy. 2. Open up channels of expression and encourage people to write letters and speak out. According to the original regulations of the Qing Dynasty, not only ordinary people, but also Beijing officials below the fourth rank and local officials below the third rank were not eligible to submit memorials. On June 15th, July 17th, and 28th, edicts were issued successively, declaring that ministers and workers, as well as ordinary people, had the right to submit letters to express their opinions. Officials from various ministries should submit letters to each court official on their behalf; The Procuratorate shall submit the letter on behalf of the Procuratorate; the letters submitted by local scholars and people shall be recorded by the Provincial Government at any time. It also stipulated that "no suppression is allowed" and "any obstruction will be punished as a violation of the decree." At the same time, an edict was issued to encourage various localities to open newspaper offices and distribute newspapers, and to change the Shanghai "Shiwu Bao" to the official newspaper. In addition, in the military field, he also ordered the elimination of the old army, trained troops according to Western methods, prepared to build a navy, vigorously maintained armor, implemented team training, etc.
In short, due to the promotion of the reformists and the advocacy of Emperor Guangxu, in just a hundred days, the Chinese people achieved a certain degree of freedom of speech, publication, assembly, and association; the national capitalist industry It was legally recognized for the first time; bourgeois ideology and culture was widely disseminated, and the old feudal learning was dealt a heavy blow. Therefore, the Hundred Days Reform has progressive significance in Chinese history. Kang Youwei once excitedly praised the Hundred Days Reform for "eliminating two thousand years of accumulated abuses" and "conforming to the hearts of 40 million people." , the whole country is reformed to change its outlook, and outsiders are moved by it but are horrified by it.” Although Kang's statement is not without exaggeration, it shows that the Hundred Days Reform did reflect the interests of the emerging bourgeoisie. For this reason, it aroused desperate resistance from the feudal die-hards. Empress Dowager Cixi launched a coup with the support of the die-hards of the Hou Party. She re-announced political discipline on August 6th, imprisoned Emperor Guangxu, restored the old system, and hunted down the reformers. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao escaped, and Tan Sitong, Yang Rui, Liu Guangdi, Lin Xu, Yang Shenxiu, and Kang Guangren were killed. They were known in history as the "Six Gentlemen of 1898" and the Hundred Days Reform failed.
As we all know, before the Reform Movement of 1898, the highest political ideal of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao was to establish a parliament, establish a parliament, and implement a constitutional monarchy; however, the biggest flaw of the reform laws during the Hundred Days Reform was that they did not advocate the implementation of a constitutional monarchy. , in this regard, most people attribute the reason to the fact that Emperor Guangxu was unwilling to limit his power; in fact, this is only one aspect of the problem, and it is a secondary aspect. The most important thing lies in the changes in Kang Youwei's reform thoughts and strategies. : That is, it evolved from advocating civil rights reforms to monarchical reforms.
On December 10, 1888, Kang Youwei took advantage of the opportunity to participate in the Shuntian Provincial Examination and wrote to Guangxu for the first time, proposing to "become the law, communicate with the people, and be careful about the left and right". The letter was filled with wine by the Imperial College. He handed it over to Weng Tonghe and asked for delivery, but was rejected. Kang Youwei was very frustrated, "Tiger and leopard guarded the nine passes fiercely, and the emperor couldn't scream."
On May 6, 1895, following the "public petition" that shocked China and foreign countries, Kang Youwei submitted two consecutive petitions, proposing "the establishment of a parliament to communicate with the people". The third petition was finally delivered to Guangxu In his hands, he attracted attention, and the reformists began to receive support from Emperor Guangxu. Liang Qichao also loudly declared in his "General Discussion on Reform" that "the increasing respect for monarchy and the decline of civil rights are the root causes of China's weakness" and called for "extending civil rights", "setting up a parliament" and implementing a constitutional monarchy.
With the gradual development of the reform practice, Kang Youwei gradually realized that "the reform seems simple, but in fact it is too difficult to succeed." He realized the strength of the stubborn forces and the weakness of the reformists, and he wanted to copy the British and American It is very difficult to directly open a congress and set up a chamber. It is more practical that only by relying on the authority of the emperor and "dictating the principles and principles" can it be possible to "turn it into law" and achieve prosperity.
Kang Youwei's fourth petition has clearly changed his political strategy: "The people in the meeting still take the decision from the superiors, but it does not achieve the purpose of brainstorming, and a little less affection, in order to raise wages and use the power of people. , This is not the case, but it is a declaration of superior virtue, so what is the harm to superior authority?" In order to eliminate Guangxu's concerns.
In January 1898, Kang Youwei submitted his sixth letter in response to Guangxu's imperial edict, "In response to the imperial edict, to coordinate the overall situation", proposing: ① clarify the national affairs, ② "establish the overall situation of the system" "Its Outline", as the central organization that guides national reforms, it is worth noting that the Institutional Bureau was established under the auspices of the emperor, which strengthened the imperial power and was essentially different from the democratically elected Congress. After that, Kang Youwei submitted his books "Russian Peter's Rebellion", "Japan's Rebellion", "The Destruction of Poland" and other books to Guangxu for Guangxu's reading and reference. This is Kang Youwei's comprehensive work from the civil rights reform to the monarchy reform. Adjustment.
On March 12, 1898, Kang Youwei wrote to Guangxu for the seventh time, clearly stating that it is best to follow Peter as an example and Russia as a model to carry out reforms. The system of democracy is different from that of China. It is as powerful as the British and Germans. The system of monarchy and democracy is little different from China. However, the Russian monarchy is the most respected and the system is strict, which is the same as China. However, with the reform of monarchy, it has become weaker. In order to be strong, there is no one who can turn decline into prosperity as quickly as Russia’s former leader Peter the Great. Therefore, China’s reform is better than that of France and Russia, and it is better to use monarch power to reform than Peter the Great.”
In this case, it is not possible. It is natural to open a parliament and establish a chamber. To talk about "constitutional monarchy" is to ignore the current affairs. In short, the author believes that the fundamental reason why the "Hundred Days Reform" did not mention the opening of Congress, the establishment of a parliament, and the implementation of a constitutional monarchy was due to the weakness of the bourgeois reformists who pinned their hopes for the success or failure of the reform on Emperor Guangxu, thus changing the "civil rights reform" "The original intention was to embark on the path of "monarchy reform". Not only did he not want to weaken the monarchy, but he also hoped to strengthen it.
Objective reasons: Emperor Guangxu himself was a puppet emperor with no real power. His direct purpose of supporting the reform was to seize real power. How could he allow civil rights to weaken the monarchy again? Secondly, the reform itself is a large, complex, and long-term systematic project. The Peter I reform that Kang Youwei strongly recommended did not include the Diet at all. The Meiji Restoration also first seized power from the shogun and established the authority of the emperor. Reforms were carried out under the auspices of the Japanese government, and the institutions and status of the parliament were gradually established during the reform (the 1889 "Constitution of the Empire of Japan" stated that the cabinet was responsible to the emperor, not to the parliament). Britain implemented a constitutional monarchy, and it took half a century from the beginning of the revolution in 1640 to the promulgation of the Bill of Rights in 1689 to establish the constitutional monarchy. It is simply impossible to implement a constitutional monarchy in a feudal empire like China with a two-thousand-year tradition of monarchy. When the basic economic system has not changed, the sudden convening of Congress obviously lacks the proper organization, ideological preparation, and social and material conditions. In a word, the "Hundred Days Reform" was too short-lived and died prematurely. The constitutional monarchy was stillborn before it had time to be conceived.