The author agrees with Professor He Guanghu’s analysis of the essential characteristics of religion and his academic tendency to oppose “pan-religious theory”. The author believes that this pan-religious theory provides us with another explanation, that is, strong and persistent feelings are not unique to religion. It is incorrect to attribute only warm and persistent feelings to religion, or to think that only religion has warm and persistent feelings.
The author, like He Guanghu, does not agree with the so-called "Buddhism without God" theory, which means that Buddhism is a godless religion. For example, Muller said: "Buddha's religion was completely atheistic from the beginning." However, this is probably a huge misunderstanding. Because the basis of Buddhist teachings is Hinduism. The six paths of reincarnation are the basis of Hindu teachings and the basis of Buddhist teachings. All the efforts of Buddhism are to pursue the training to break free from this cycle of reincarnation. Therefore, the gods of Hinduism are also the gods of Buddhism. In particular, Brahma, Sakyamuni, etc. not only played an important role in the process of Buddha's enlightenment, but also played an important role in the life of Buddha's preaching until Nirvana. The difference is that the gods in Hinduism, such as the gods, are not able to escape the chain of reincarnation, but the Buddha is an existence that has escaped the chain of reincarnation. Therefore, the Buddha is a greater god than the gods, Brahma, etc., and has greater power. Great supernatural powers.
Belief in gods is a common feature of various religions. However, if we only talk about belief in God, we are only talking about phenomena. We must further examine, what do people only do when they believe in God? In other words, why did they create a god just to believe in and worship?
The investigation found that the reason why any religion believes in gods is to ask gods to solve problems for them that they are unable to solve. These questions are by no means merely spiritual needs. People sacrifice to gods, worship and offer sacrifices to gods, in order to please gods; when they pray and supplicate to gods, they ask gods to solve problems for them and provide them with guidance and help. These problems are both material and spiritual. In short, they are all problems that people are unable to solve, or that people think they are unable to solve.
There are many ways and content to please the gods. It can be material sacrifices and tangible worship, or it can be intangible piety or virtue, but it must be done in a certain way to please the gods. *** Same. Sacrifices and prayers can also take many forms. They can be conducted dispersedly and individually, with individuals communicating directly with gods; they can also be organized and communicated with gods through the intermediary of clergy. There can also be no form, just do it according to God's requirements, and have a pure spiritual communication. But it is completely different that we must communicate with God and put forward our own requirements to God. If you just please the gods without making demands from the gods, there is no meaning in pleasing the gods, and there is no such religion. Those fixed sacrifices without prayers at that time were just preliminary emotional and material investments to temporarily please the gods, or repayments to the gods after thinking that the gods only blessed them. This kind of repayment is still an advance preparation if you need God's help in the future.
Therefore, religion, like all social phenomena, takes utility as its own purpose, and there is no social existence beyond utility.
If in a broad sense, everything created by human beings is regarded as culture, then this statement is also acceptable. If we talk about culture in the sense of being opposed to politics, economy, and military, then religion is by no means just a kind of culture. It once stood at the top of social life and guided all aspects of politics, economy, and military. "Religious wars" and "theological politics" are all familiar terms. But there is no such term as "literary war", because there can be no war between these cultural things; literature and art cannot guide politics. In this sense, it is wrong to describe religion only as a cultural phenomenon. Therefore, in the definition of this book, religion is not described as a "cultural phenomenon" but as a "social phenomenon" for this reason.
A few years ago, we were able to discuss Confucian issues with Professor DIANE B. OBENCHAIN ??of the School of Religion at Harvard University in the United States. Professor O'Dean quoted her mentor and her personal opinion as saying that religion means that we believe that there is such a superior being, that we respect it, trust it, and do what it requires. In short, it means believing in the existence of a god and acting in accordance with God's will. Perhaps, in Professor O'Dean's view, God does exist, while we believe that God does not exist. But in terms of our understanding of religion, it can be said that we are basically consistent and have no important differences. Because the reason why people do what God asks is because they believe that doing so will solve their problems.
Thus, when we encounter a social phenomenon, people within this scope believe in the existence of gods and beg gods for help to solve their problems. And when they receive instructions they think are from God, and in principle believe that they must act according to God's will, then such a social phenomenon is religion.
2. What is Confucianism?
In his introduction to "A Diverse View of God", Professor He Guanghu also analyzed the original meaning of the word religion in English and pointed out that it originated from Latin religare or religio. “The former means ‘connection’, referring to the connection between man and God; the latter means ‘respect’, referring to man’s respect for God.” In other words, the so-called religion is the relationship between man and God. In Confucianism, the relationship between humans and gods is concentrated in the relationship between heaven and man, that is, the relationship between God and humans.
The Confucian classics were finally determined to be thirteen. What Confucius used to teach students at that time was mainly poetry, calligraphy, etiquette, and music. "The Book of Songs: What King Wen is about - Ming Dynasty" says:
Keep King Wen here, be cautious. Show God, and be blessed.
"Book of Rites·Biaoji" quotes this passage. Zheng Xuan's annotation is: "Zhao means Ming. God means Tian." Therefore, to Zhao Shi God is to serve Heaven, and to serve Tian is to Zhao Shi God. This is an ancient tradition and the basic content that Confucius taught his students. Therefore, in the Tang Dynasty, Kong Yingda wrote a commentary for Zheng Jian's "The Biography of Mao Shi" and interpreted this sentence as: "Ming things are the way of heaven."
According to ancient tradition, the basic method of serving gods is to offer sacrifices to gods. Sacrifice requires certain rituals, which are called rituals. Sacrifice is the most important content in Confucian etiquette: "When it comes to governing people, don't be hasty with etiquette. There are five classics in etiquette, so don't focus on sacrifice" ("Book of Rites: Sacrifice Tradition"). The rituals that are generally recognized by academic circles and that Confucius attaches special importance to are the rituals that have the "Five Classics" (five categories), with sacrificial rituals being the most important.
In the sacrifice ceremony, the most important thing is to sacrifice to God. "Xunzi·Lun on Rites" says:
There are three roots in rituals: heaven and earth, the foundation of life; ancestors, the foundation of species; rulers and teachers, the foundation of governance. Without heaven and earth, evil is born? Without ancestors, evil will come out? No master, bad governance? The three of them are dead, and no one can be safe. Therefore, rituals serve the heaven above and the earth below. They respect the ancestors and serve as kings and teachers. These are the three books of rites. Therefore, the king is the ancestor of heaven, and the princes dare not do harm.
This means that offering sacrifices to God is the most important means of serving heaven and the most important meaning of etiquette. To serve Heaven is to worship Heaven as Taizu. The text in "Book of Rites of Dadai" is almost the same as that of Xunzi:
The ancient rites serve the heaven above and the earth below. The ancestors come before the ancestors, and they favor the emperor and teachers. These are the three principles of rites.
...("Three Books of Rites")
"Historical Records·Book of Rites" also records this passage almost in its original text. We do not distinguish who copied "Xunzi" and "Dai". What is important is that we understand from this that Confucian scholars from the Spring and Autumn Period, the Warring States Period to the Han Dynasty generally believed that offering sacrifices to God through certain etiquette was a matter of heaven. important means.
"The king is the ancestor of heaven" means that the king should serve heaven as the ancestor. In the Han Dynasty, this idea further developed into the theory of Heavenly Father and Earthly Mother. Its representative figure is, first of all, Dong Zhongshu. "Spring and Autumn Fanlu" says:
The emperor's parents serve heaven, but the descendants and livestock of all the people, and the people are not fully fed, and there is no use to sacrifice to heaven, this is the same as the descendants have not received food, and have no use to feed their parents, so do not go against it. ...The Son of Heaven must not fail to sacrifice to Heaven, just as a human being cannot fail to eat his father... ("Suburban Sacrifice")
No one in the world will think it acceptable to be a son of man but not to serve his father. Today is Heaven. How can it be different for a son who does not care about heaven? ("Suburban Sacrifice")
This means that serving heaven is an extension of serving the father. Similar thoughts are also contained in the "Book of Rites" written by Da Dai and Xiao Dai. Xiao Dai's "Book of Rites" said:
The princes borrowed a hundred acres, crowned themselves with green ribbons, and worked hard to serve the heaven, earth, mountains and rivers... ("Book of Rites: Sacrifice for Righteousness")
Therefore, a benevolent person treats relatives as he does heaven, and serves heaven as he serves relatives. This is why a filial son becomes a man. ("Book of Rites·Ai Gongwen")
"Book of Rites of Dadai" records:
Confucius said: "Qiu heard this: The people are born from rituals. Without etiquette, there is no way to honor the gods of heaven and earth..." ("Ai Gong asked Confucius")
Confucius suddenly avoided the table and said to him: "A benevolent man does not care about things, and a filial son does not care about things. This is benevolence. People treat relatives as they do with heaven, and heaven as they do relatives, so a filial son becomes a man." (ibid.)
"Book of Rites" and "Book of Rites of Great Dai" are mostly believed by modern scholars to be from the Han Dynasty. The writings of Confucian scholars. The unearthing of the Guodian bamboo slips shows that at least some chapters existed before the Han Dynasty. As for the remarks of Confucius contained in it, it is difficult to say that they are all fabrications of Han Confucianism. But this is not something we have to discuss. What we can confirm from this is that the discussion of serving the father and serving heaven in the "Book of Rites" of Dai and Dai at least represents the unanimous opinion of Confucian scholars in the Han Dynasty.
If from "Xunzi" through Dong Zhongshu to Dai Dai's "Book of Rites", the meaning and importance of things in heaven are still just words, then by Wang Mang, this theory has been implemented into the country’s sacrificial system. In the fifth year of Emperor Ping's reign of the Han Dynasty, Wang Mang wrote:
The king's father serves heaven, so he is called the Son of Heaven. ("Book of Han·Jiao Sacrifice Chronicles")
Later, Wang Mang also reported on the Jiao Sacrifice:
I would like to share with eighty-nine people including Taishi Guang, Da Situ Gong, Xi Hexin, etc. According to the discussion, it is said that the Son of Heaven, the father serves heaven, and the mother serves earth. Today, the god of heaven is called Huangtian God Taiyi (Note: Zhonghua Book Company punctuates the original version as "... Huangtian God, Taiyi...")... (ibid.)
Guang Guang and Xin Liu Xin were both ministers at the time and Confucianists of the generation. This means that those who advocated that the king should serve Heaven as his father had already gained the common sense of the Confucian scholars at that time. Even Wang Chong, who is considered a famous materialist thinker and atheist, also accepted this opinion. His "Lunheng·Sacrificial Intentions Chapter" says:
The king's father serves heaven and his mother serves earth. People care for their parents, so there are also sacrifices to heaven and earth.
After the Han Dynasty, the idea of ????doing things for heaven as you do for your parents can be found everywhere in Confucian literature, especially those that discuss etiquette issues. Even Su Shi, who is famous for his poems and essays, believed:
The king's father is responsible for heaven and his mother is responsible for earth, so they cannot be biased. Be prepared when doing things in the sky, and be simple in doing things when doing things on the ground. This is why parents will be killed. ...If you only offer sacrifices to the earth and not to heaven, you will be neglecting heaven because you are doing things for earth. ("Six Comments on the Shangyuanqiu Joint Sacrifice")
Su Shi's words are obviously repeating the common opinions of previous Confucian scholars.
In primitive or early religions, the basic method of serving gods is to offer sacrifices to gods. The meaning of sacrifice is to provide God with food, clothing, and supplies. They also believe that the richer, more valuable, and the purer the sacrifice is, the more it will please the gods. This point is almost the same for every nation or nation in the ancient times of the world.
In this regard, the most tragic incident is that in the Christian New Testament, it is said that God sacrificed his son. This is the epitome of ancient kings also dedicating their sons when necessary. In Christianity, the sacrifice of God's own Son brought an end to the history of sacrifice once and for all. In Confucianism, this tradition has been preserved until the demise of Confucianism, and its shadow still exists even now. Nowadays, people use sacrifices to worship gods and the dead, and even use paper carriages, horses, and household appliances. This is the continuation of this ancient tradition.
However, at least in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the traditional concept of sacrifice was criticized. People believe that to make the gods happy, the most important thing is not the richness and value of the sacrifices, but the virtue of the people. During this period, regulations were made on the specifications of the gods and the corresponding number of sacrifices. And virtue has increasingly become the main means to please the gods. By the Han Dynasty, filial piety gradually became prominent among various virtues and became the most important virtue. Therefore, filial piety became the most important content of serving heaven. "The Book of Filial Piety Ying Gan Zhang" says:
Be filial to your father, and the story will be clear in the morning; be filial to your mother, and the story will be clear.
A note signed by Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty:
If the heaven and the earth can see things clearly, then the gods will feel sincere and send blessings, so it is called Zhangye.
Xing Bing, a Confucian in the early Song Dynasty, said:
Also, if the heaven and earth can clearly observe the king's affairs, they will surely bring blessings, and the gods' merits will be obvious.
The "Book of Filial Piety" is said to be a record of Confucius teaching filial piety to Zeng Shen, and it occupies a particularly important position in the Confucian classics. It is said that Confucius once said: "If you want to understand my intention to praise and criticize the princes, please read the Spring and Autumn Annals; to uphold human ethics, please read the Classic of Filial Piety." ("The Classic of Filial Piety") This saying was widely circulated among Confucian scholars in the Han Dynasty, and was also Xing Bing wrote his "Commentary Preface to the Book of Filial Piety". Although "The Classic of Filial Piety" is not included in the Five or Six Classics, its importance and wide spread are often unmatched by the Five or Six Classics. Because although the Five Classics are important, not many people can read and remember them. They have a lot of text and are difficult to understand. In the Han Dynasty, the "Book of Filial Piety" was required to be read by every palace guard. The degree of spread since then is no less than that of the Han Dynasty. It can be said that to the extent that Confucian countries promote "ruling the world with filial piety", the maxim of "serving the father with filial piety will serve the heaven" will also spread.
Zhang Zai, a Confucian scholar in the Song Dynasty, said:
The reason why a benevolent man and a filial son are sincere and sincere is not just benevolence and filial piety. ("Zhengmeng·Chengming")
"Cheng's Suicide Notes" records Cheng's words:
Question: The heaven and the earth are clear, and the gods are clear.
It is said: Serve the righteousness of heaven and earth, serve the sincerity of heaven and earth. Since you have a clear understanding, the gods will manifest themselves. ...(Volume 18 of "The Posthumous Letters of the Cheng Family in Henan")
What Cheng Yi said about serving heaven is to serve the gods who can discern clearly.
We can also see from Zhang and Cheng’s discussion that, at least in the Song Dynasty, serving heaven was no longer the exclusive preserve of kings or emperors, but could be done by everyone, at least every Confucian scholar, and Something that must be done. Although Confucian scholars do not have the right to sacrifice to God, they can realize their wishes to serve heaven through their own virtues. In the Southern Song Dynasty, Lu Jiuyuan, who had different views from Cheng and Zhu, said:
Be careful and serve God. God is with you and has no objection. If you are cautious, then you have time to take care of yourself.
When nothing happens, don’t forget to be cautious and serve God. (Both see "Collection of Lu Jiuyuan·Quotations Part 2")
There is a saying in "The Great Exhortation": "The wisdom of heaven is the wisdom of the people, and the wisdom of heaven is afraid of the power of the people." It is the will of the people, but God actually sends it down. . As a ruler and teacher, he only supports God, so he is called the Son of Heaven. ...Therefore, the Duke of Zhou wrote an emblem to the king, saying: "...to serve God with respect, and establish the people as eldest uncles." ...(Lu Jiuyuan's "Yizhang County Xueji")
The way to serve heaven, and The so-called "fa Tian" means "taking heaven as an example", or acting according to heaven's way of doing things and following heaven's instructions.
The concept of "law and heaven" was first seen in "Laozi" "man follows heaven". "Mozi·Fayi" has "But Xi thinks that the rule of law is enough? Therefore, it is said that it is nothing like the law of heaven." There is also the concept of "Fa Tian" in "Guanzi". In the Analects of Confucius, it is "Ze Tian": "Only Heaven is great, and only Yao can control it." The meaning is the same. Later, Fa Tian became a popular concept. "Lu Shi Chun Qiu" uses it, and Huang Lao Taoists also use it.
After Confucianism came to dominate, it became the most common belief among Confucians, that is, only by taking heaven as the law can human affairs be done well. The so-called taking Heaven as the law means that everything from people's words and deeds to various visible and intangible systems and facilities must be governed by Heaven. For example, the Mingtang has a circle at the top and a circle at the bottom. This is the round place of the Fatian. There are five levels of nobles, which means the five elements of the Fatian. Rewards are given in spring and executions are carried out in autumn. This is the life of Fa Tian in spring and autumn. For example, the sky "hide its form and see its light", and the human master should also "hide deeply within" and "view broadly", and "take inaction as the way" ("Spring and Autumn Fanlu·Lihegen").
Since Dong Zhongshu talked about Fa Tian in "Chun Qiu Fan Lu", "Fa Tian" has become a commonly used concept in Confucian literature. Like "Ze Tian", it has become a guide for Confucian behavior. And "Fa Tian" is also considered to be a way of serving heaven: "Fa Tian is the reason why we serve heaven" (Explanation of Jiao Xun's "Mencius's Justice·Dedicated Heart")
Mencius once put forward " The proposition of “Keep your mind and nourish your nature to serve Heaven” ("Mencius: Cultivate Your Heart"). But before the Tang Dynasty, because "Mencius" was not taken seriously, the proposition of cultivating one's nature and serving heaven was not taken seriously either. Starting from the Song Dynasty, cultivating one’s nature and serving nature has become a hot topic among Confucian scholars. Lu Jiuyuan discusses Mencius's "doing things with heaven":
The three poles (note: heaven, earth and man) all share this principle, and heaven is the supreme one. Therefore, it is said: "Only Heaven is great, and only Yao rules it." The five canons are heaven's instructions, the five rituals are heaven's orders, the five observances are manifested by heaven's mandate, and the five punishments are used by heaven. If today's scholars can fully understand their nature, they will understand Heaven; if they cultivate their nature with their mind, they will serve Heaven. ...(Lu Jiuyuan's "The Book of Taoism with Zhao Yong")
The heaven that we do is the heaven that heaven expresses and heaven criticizes. This kind of heaven is God. And work is service. And knowing heaven means knowing God.
Lu Jiuyuan also wrote an article on "On the Nature of Heaven and Earth and the Value of Man", which said:
When Mencius said "know the nature", he must say "know its nature, then "Knowing Heaven"; when talking about "serving Heaven", it must be said that "nurturing one's nature is why one serves Heaven." "The Doctrine of the Mean" says that "praising the transformation and education of Heaven and Earth" must be based on "being able to fulfill one's nature"... I sincerely believe that there is no reason beyond my one nature. If I can fulfill my nature, even if I want to be different from heaven and earth, it is impossible to achieve it. Since the Master told Zengzi about filial piety, he said: "Serve your father with filial piety, and the story will be clear to the sky; serve your mother with filial piety, and the story will be clear to the earth." To name those who serve heaven and earth,?