-Einstein
introduce
Albert Einstein (1879- 1955), the greatest scientist in the 20th century, is famous for establishing the theory of relativity. The establishment of the principle of relativity is a leap in the process of human understanding of nature, and traditional physics has been successfully incorporated into its own theoretical system. The general theory of relativity broadens the horizon of mankind and expands the scope of scientific research from the infinitesimal micro-world to the infinite macro-world. Today, the theory of relativity has become the theoretical basis of atomic energy science, space navigation and astronomy, and is widely used in theoretical science and applied science. Einstein's great achievement, the theory of relativity, is an epoch-making milestone in the history of natural science development.
Einstein was born in a Jewish family in Germany on March 1879. 1905 received his Ph.D. in physics and published his special theory of relativity in the same year. 192 1 won the nobel prize in physics. 1933 left the motherland and moved to the United States because of the persecution of anti-semitism by German Nazis. 1955 April 18 died in Princeton.
Einstein was not only a great scientist but also a social activist with a sense of justice. He cares about human civilization and progress. During World War II, he publicly condemned the atrocities of the German fascists, so he became the target of the German Nazis. Einstein also condemned the Japanese imperialist aggression against China. In his later years, he advocated the prohibition of nuclear weapons and opposed the nuclear arms race. On his deathbed, he was still obsessed with civil liberties and world peace.
1At the end of the 9th century and the beginning of the 20th century, with the development of production and the improvement of the level of scientific experiments, people's understanding of nature began to move from the macro world to the micro world, from low-speed movement to high-speed movement, and natural science faced a major breakthrough. It was during this period that young Einstein stepped onto the stage of natural science as a "rebel" of the old scientific theory.
Einstein was interested in natural phenomena when he was young. The wind and rain formed and the moon in the sky didn't fall, which surprised him. From 65438 to 0896, when studying at the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, Switzerland, Einstein hoped to become a physicist.
But after graduation, Einstein lost his job, and it took him two years to find a job as a junior clerk in the Patent Office in Bern, Switzerland. Although he lives in poverty, he insists on scientific research and reads a lot of books in his spare time. This period laid the foundation for his lifelong scientific research.
From 65438 to 0905, Einstein made great achievements in three different fields: special relativity, photoelectric effect and Brownian motion, showing amazing intelligence. However, few people in the scientific community responded to this at that time. The famous French scientist Langevin once told Einstein that only a few people in the world know what the theory of relativity is. Most people are skeptical, and some even resolutely oppose it. This is because the classical mechanical theory system founded by Galileo and Newton has made brilliant achievements after 200 years of development. Although there are sharp contradictions between the old theoretical system and the new facts, many physicists still can't get rid of them. They tried to accommodate new experimental facts and physical phenomena in the old theoretical framework, but Einstein was not superstitious about his predecessors. He explored extending the theory of relativity to a wider range of sports. To this end, he studied 10 years. In 19 16, Einstein published his summary paper "Principles of General Relativity".
2005 is the Year of World Physics, which is a series of celebrations organized by the European Physical Society (EPS). Including EPS- 13 Beyond Einstein -2 1 Century Physics. Time: July 2005. Location: Switzerland.
Time flies, mankind has already entered 2 1 century. Looking back at the past in the glory we created, we should admit that Einstein's theory of relativity was the product of nearly a hundred years ago. At that time, there was a big gap between human's scientific cognition and today's, especially the speed limit of relativity, the wrong description of graviton's running route and the ignorance of microscopic gravitational field. Einstein was actually killed by his own theory when he devoted himself to establishing the "unified field theory". The gravitational field he described cannot be unified with the electromagnetic field, which also sets a trap for future generations to establish a "super-unified theory". It took Einstein three years to establish the "special relativity", eight years to establish the "general relativity", but 30 years to establish the "unified field theory", which shows that there are some problems in his gravity theory, because the electromagnetic field theory has been proved to be a relatively perfect theory in practice, and the two cannot be unified. This problem can only be found in his new theory of gravity. Many scientists will follow his ideas, and the result will inevitably hit a wall. In scientific exploration, mistakes are inevitable, just like Einstein's specially designed "cosmological constant", and some of Einstein's views are contrary to the emerging quantum mechanics at that time. Practice has proved that quantum mechanics is correct, but these mistakes do not affect Einstein to become a generation of scientific masters, and many of his thoughts are still of epoch-making significance.
Ironically, the root of Einstein's frustration lies in the structure of his equation itself. In the past 30 years, he has been troubled by a basic defect of this expression. One side of the equation is curvature of spacetime, who compares it to "marble" because it has beautiful geometric structure, but he doesn't like the equation to describe the other side of mass energy. He thinks the other person is ugly. He compared it to "wood". Time and space "marble" is clear and delicate, but quality energy "wood" is a pile. Einstein speculated that one day marble alone could explain all the characteristics of wood. For Einstein, wood is a distortion of time and space. However, quantum physics thinks of the opposite. They think that marble can be turned into wood, that is, Einstein's metric tensor can be transformed into a graviton, which is a discrete energy packet loaded with gravity. These are two diametrically opposed views, and people have always thought that it is impossible to reach a compromise between them. In fact, both have the right ingredients. Einstein refers to the result of the gravitational field of celestial bodies-"space-time bending", and quantum physics refers to the point energy "itself" of the gravitational field, but they didn't think that particles and gravitons are two different levels of quanta, and gravitons are the structural materials of particles. If you see this, the above problems will be solved. In the unified formula of four forces (gravity = strong nuclear force+electromagnetic force+weak nuclear force) proposed by the author, the "gravity" on the left side of the formula can represent Einstein's gravity theory and "marble", while the "strong nuclear force, electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force" on the right side of the formula can represent everything in the universe composed of particles and represent traditional quantum physics.
The author unified the theory of relativity with the traditional quantum theory, and made some modifications, but this is due to the fruitful achievements created by countless scientists in the past 100 years. Without these as the basis, the author can't reorganize many old and new modules. The scientific and technological achievements created by mankind in the past 100 years exceeded the sum of the previous 3000 years. It is a strange thing that there is no scientific theory with great innovative significance in such rich scientific and technological achievements.
This book discusses an all-encompassing theory. The author synthesizes all the outstanding achievements of human natural science, establishes the theory of gravity measurement and the theory of quantum cosmic singularity, unifies general relativity and quantum physics, unifies strong nuclear force, electromagnetic force, gravity and weak nuclear force, and puts forward the universe formula, thus unifying natural science. In the fourth chapter, the author summarizes all disciplines in the field of humanities and social sciences, and puts forward that "there are four programs in the universe-cosmic program, social program, human brain program and computer program". Everything in the universe and human society are the products of the complex interaction of the above three programs. This book is suitable for researchers in natural sciences and humanities and social sciences, as well as for science and liberal arts students in universities.
In May 2002, the author submitted a paper entitled "Quantum Gravity Theory and Cosmic Formula" to scientific research institutions in major countries in the world, which had a great response in the scientific community, and countries competed to join the research. This book is an enlarged version of the above-mentioned paper, in which Chapter 2, Sections 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and Chapter 4 are brand-new contents, and Chapter 3, "Procedures at All Levels in the Universe", is greatly enlarged. In scientific exploration, the author adopts the method of combining reductionism with holism, and essentializes everything in the universe with a retrospective method. From the source, it is easier to sort out its context, systematically sort out and summarize, so as to get the truth of everything. The author's tracing method belongs to reductionism, while the proposed cosmic program belongs to holism. The author regards all kinds of things as modules, building blocks or codes and symbols to construct and restore all things in the universe, and it is easy to understand the content of this paper by using structuralist thinking mode.
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The first chapter is the theory of quantum gravity and the theory of quantum cosmic singularity.
There is a third-order quantum in the universe.
There are great differences in volume, energy, mass and density among stars, neutron stars, black holes and cosmic singularities. It can be concluded that they are composed of three different quantum orders. Stars are made up of atoms, neutron stars are made up of particles (neutrons), black holes are made up of gravitons, and cosmic singularities are made up of odd ones. From the singularity of the universe, gravitons, particles and atoms all have foam structures, and we are already familiar with atomic bubbles. From neutron stars to black holes and cosmic singularities, the interior of particles and gravitons is still very empty.
Due to the current level of science and technology, we can't separate the substructures of electrons, photons, quarks and gravitons in artificial laboratories, but we can use the natural experimental field of cosmic celestial bodies to study the substructures of matter with a large number of celestial bodies composed of atoms or particles or gravitons. When a star collapses into a neutron star, we know that neutrons are one of the constituent substances of atoms, which is what we know. When a neutron star collapses into a black hole, it is known that the graviton is one of the components of particles such as neutrons, and the black hole is a pure gravitational celestial body and a world of pure gravitons. When the cosmic black hole that devours most substances in the universe collapses into a cosmic singularity, it is known that the singularity is one of the structural substances of the graviton. There are great differences between the black hole singularity and the cosmic singularity in energy, mass, density, temperature and so on. The black hole singularity produces an inward force, while the cosmic singularity produces a huge outward force.
The atoms that make up everything in the universe are very empty. The diameter of the nucleus is about one hundred thousandth of the diameter of the atom, which is equivalent to a soybean in the center of a standard football field, and the electrons are equivalent to a few grains of sand on the periphery of the football field. Please remember the ratio of the size of atoms to protons. This real gap will highlight the fatal flaw of the traditional atomic model (this comparative experiment is best done on a football field, and the size ratio of atoms to nuclei in the picture has been seriously distorted). After the death of a star with a solar mass of 1.2, it is compressed by its own gravity into a neutron star with a diameter of 10 km. At this time, the main component of the star is neutrons. If neutron stars keep attracting space matter, when they reach a certain mass, they will be compressed into tiny black holes by their own gravity, which shows that particles similar to neutrons are also very empty, and any particles in black holes are compressed into smaller quanta-gravitons. What's in a black hole? At least it has its own, many gravitons.
The average density of a star is 1 GCM-3. When a star collapses into a white dwarf, its average density is 107 GCM-3, which is balanced by the degeneracy pressure of electrons and gravity. White dwarfs with a mass greater than 1.2 solar mass cannot be stable, and electrons and protons in the nucleus combine into neutrons to become neutron stars. The density of neutron stars is 10 14 GCM-3. Neutron stars are supported by neutron degeneracy pressure. Neutron stars with a mass greater than three solar masses cannot be stable, and will further collapse inward and become black holes.
The degeneracy pressure of electrons and neutrons is essentially a repulsive force to gravity and a reflection of the antigravity field.
In neutrons, there are both strong nuclear forces and weak nuclear forces, and they are polymerized by positive protons and negative electrons, so neutrons are polymers of strong nuclear forces, electromagnetic forces and weak nuclear forces. In neutron stars, the above three forces are aggregated into neutrons to make the final resistance to gravity, that is to say, strong nuclear force, electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force have gradually unified in neutron stars.
Atoms, particles and gravitons all have a foam structure, and the key factor supporting these foams is speed. The speed of electrons supports the atomic foam, and the graviton material must run at superluminal speed to maintain the structural stability of particle-level materials such as photons and electrons, while the odd son must run at superluminal speed to maintain the structural stability of the graviton foam.
The diameter of the atom is about 10-8 cm, and the diameter of the electron is about 10- 16 cm. It is concluded that the diameter of graviton is about 10-24 cm, and the diameter of odd number is about 10-33 cm, which is equivalent to Planck scale.
When the sun is compressed into a sphere with a diameter of 2.95 kilometers, it becomes a black hole. At this point, the neutron bubble is crushed, and nothing can stop it from collapsing further inward. According to the actual volume of the graviton, the total volume of the graviton of a solar mass black hole is only equivalent to a sphere with a diameter of 10-2 cm.
If the earth is compressed into a small sphere with a diameter of 8.9 cm, it will become a black hole. According to the actual volume of the graviton, the total volume of the earth's black hole graviton is only equivalent to a sphere with a diameter of 8.9× 10-8 cm.
The earth made of atoms is so empty, so what do we see in the world? It is an illusion that electrons move around the nucleus at nearly the speed of light.
As the most powerful and ubiquitous carrier of gravity in the universe, "gravitons" must exist. Because the graviton only produces an inward force, it is impossible for a graviton to combine all kinds of particles. There must be a substance of the same level as the graviton to produce an opposite force to support the particle bubble. Back to the beginning of BIGBANG (10-43 seconds), gravity was the most successful. To answer this question, it depends on who gravity is constantly competing with, which is undoubtedly strong nuclear force, electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force. Their carriers are all kinds of particles, so we can know that antigravity and graviton are the structural materials of all particles, strong nuclear force, electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force are differentiated from antigravity, and all particles are the balance body of the unity of opposites of gravity and antigravity.
From the great differences in mass, density, energy and temperature between black holes and cosmic singularities, it can be seen that the odd son in cosmic singularities is one of the structural materials of gravitons and antigravities, but it is impossible for odd sons to combine these two materials with great differences in performance. Gravitator produces an arc-shaped inward force, while antigravity produces a straight-line outward force. According to the principle of symmetry, and from the offspring (graviton and antigravity) and grandchildren (graviton), positive odd-numbered children produce a straight outward force, which is called "positive odd-numbered force", and anti-odd children produce an arc inward force, which is called "anti-odd force". In gravitons, the anti-singularity is slightly more than the positive singularity, that is, the anti-singularity force is greater than the positive singularity force, which makes gravitons generally produce an arc-shaped inward force, that is, "gravity"; There are slightly more positive singularities than anti-singularities in anti-gravitons, that is, the positive singularity force is greater than the anti-singularity force, which makes the anti-gravitons generally produce a straight outward force, that is, "anti-gravity"; Therefore, the gravitational force produced by the graviton is equal to the anti-singularity force minus the positive singularity force, and the anti-gravitational force produced by the anti-graviton is equal to the positive singularity force minus the anti-singularity force. Positive and anti-strange forces cannot exist independently. Only when these two forces balance each other at the same time can we form stable gravitons and anti-gravitons and form a stable universe.
The positive and negative children have no structure, but point energy (point energy), but their orbits are different. Under the great pressure of the black hole, some positive anti-oddions will change their orbits and become anti-oddions, thus transforming anti-gravitons into gravitons. From the point of view of the "cosmic singularity" with a volume of 0, the odd son has two states, one is a tangible positive and negative odd son, the other is an invisible and volumeless "mathematical odd son", and the other is an information state, which represents the energy "E". When the cosmic black hole collapses into a cosmic singularity, the positive and negative oddballs merge into a "mathematical oddball" without volume under the great gravitational inertia. "Matter, energy and information" are three sides of the same thing in the universe. Matter is energy, and matter contains all kinds of information at the same time, that is, "matter = energy = information".
1.2 Strong nuclear force, electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force are different from antigravity.
When electrons and positrons collide, they are converted into a virtual photon. If the collision energy is low, virtual photons will become a pair of electrons and positrons or a pair of muons. If the energy is high, virtual photons will become a pair of positive quarks and antiquarks. When the energy just reaches the mass of a vector particle (called the threshold of vector particle generation), the positive and negative quarks will form bound states. If the energy is high, there will be no * * * vibration dynamics, and the positive and negative quarks will be back to back.
Quarks in one proton component and antiquarks in another proton (or antiproton) are converted into virtual photons, and then the virtual photons produce a pair of leptons, which is just the opposite of the quark pair produced by the conversion of lepton pairs.
Photons can be transformed by the collision of positrons and antiprotons or positrons and antiprotons, and vice versa. All these processes are reversible, and all unstable particles such as mesons and hyperons will decay into photons or neutrinos, so they are combined into photons, electrons, neutrinos, quarks, protons, neutrons and all these.
Particles are like water in cups of different sizes. When water (two kinds of particles) in two different cups are poured together, another cup or two glasses of water (another kind or two kinds of particles) can be formed. Antigravitons and gravitons are like atoms in water, similar to the mutual transformation of atoms in nuclear fusion and nuclear fission, and the principle is the same. Particles cannot be the most basic unit of matter. The most basic material unit has a necessary feature: no matter how it is smashed, it will not be deformed or broken. And the transformation between particles is very frequent.
The mechanism of strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force near the nucleus belongs to a short-range force, but when this short-range force has an impact on the outside world, it is all transformed into a long-range force, with photons as the carrier. For example, the great energy of solar radiation mainly comes from powerful nuclear forces. Therefore, we can see that strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force and electromagnetic force all have a process of transforming short-range force into long-range force. This short-range force is manifested in the internal force mechanism of atoms. Comparing an atom to a gun, the same gunpowder is used in the gun, but the amount of gunpowder is different, and the method of igniting the gunpowder is different (equivalent to different stress mechanisms of strong nuclear force, electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force), but the bullets fired are all the same, and photons are equivalent to bullets in the gun.
π mesons transfer strong nuclear forces, while neutral bosons transfer weak nuclear forces (z? ) will soon decay into photons, π+and π-collisions will be converted into photons, W+ and W- collisions will also be converted into photons, and electromagnetic force is also a photon. So in photons, strong nuclear force, electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force are inseparable and unified, π+and π? , photon, w, z? It is a different state in the confrontation between antigravity and gravity. Photons can produce positive and anti-quarks, positive and anti-electrons, positive and anti-quarks can produce baryons such as positive and anti-protons, neutrons, etc. Positive and anti-electron collisions can produce positive and anti-neutrinos, that is, anti-gravity in photons can be divided into strong nuclear force, electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force.
As for several questions, it is impossible to answer, because the Hubble telescope now has a visual range of 5 billion light years, and countless "galaxies" can be seen in this range. No one knows beyond this range.