The development of psycholinguistics;
Psycholinguistics is a discipline that studies the psychological process in language activities, involving how human beings master and use the language system, how to make the language system play a role in practical communication, and what knowledge and abilities are needed to master and use this system. Psycholinguistics studies the encoding and decoding process in individual verbal communication from the perspective of information processing. Because of the characteristics of the research object, it is closely related to many disciplines, including psychology and linguistics, information theory, anthropology and so on. In terms of methods, experimental psychology is mainly used.
Psycholinguistics has two main research directions: behaviorism and cognitive psychology. In 1950s, psycholinguistics was mainly influenced by behavioral psychology and descriptive linguistics. Psycholinguists at that time used behaviorism to explain psycholinguistic phenomena. They believe that speech acts, like all other human behaviors, are also responses to stimuli, the formation, realization and change of associations, and they are obtained through reinforcement. In this way, the theory of psycholinguistics is basically the concrete expression of behaviorism learning theory in speech activities. The representative of this research direction is osgood. Although he didn't exclude meaning from language phenomenon like Skinner, but quoted intermediary process to explain the meaning of language, he still insisted that behaviorism learning theory could explain speech acts. Psycholinguistics is deeply influenced by modern linguistic theories. Especially after Chomsky's generative transformational grammar came into being and prevailed, psychologists attacked behaviorism language learning theory more and more, arguing that behaviorism could not explain many phenomena in speech activities.
Psychologists, represented by Miller, apply generative transformational grammar to the study of psychological language, believing that people are not mastering individual components of language, such as phonemes, words and sentences, but a set of rules. Therefore, speech activity is not a response to stimulation, but a behavior generated and controlled by rules, which is creative. They also believe that the focus of psycholinguistic research is not the different structures of human languages, but the universal rules that exist at the bottom of various languages and how these universal rules are transformed into a special language. The problems studied in psycholinguistics include speech perception and understanding, speech production, language acquisition, neurophysiological mechanism of speech, various speech defects, the relationship between speech and thinking, speech and emotion, personality and so on. The solution of these problems will play a great role in the study of learning theory, thinking theory and children's psychological development theory. It also has application value in the research of artificial intelligence, such as engineering psychology, language teaching, diagnosis and treatment of speech defects, language recognition of electronic computers and so on.
Psycholinguistic research is widely carried out in the United States. The Soviet Union, Britain, France, Germany, the Netherlands and other European countries also have psychologists engaged in this work, which is characterized by trying to combine the research of psycholinguistics with their own psychological traditions.
Psycholinguistic research has also been carried out in China, mainly in children's language acquisition. Because Chinese is very different from other languages, it is of great theoretical and practical significance to carry out research in this field in China.
(b) Development of psychobiology:
The development of modern medicine and biology, especially the development of modern brain-centered psychological neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology, has greatly promoted the research of psychobiology. The research object of psychobiology is mainly the physiological mechanism of psychological phenomena, and it can also be said that it is the material process that produces psychological activities in the human brain. The research mainly focuses on the structure and function of nervous system, the function of endocrine system, and the physiological mechanism of psychological activities and behaviors such as perception, thinking, emotion, memory, learning, sleep, instinct and motivation.
The research of modern psychobiology can be divided into the following two aspects:
1. Microscopically study the relationship between mind and body at the molecular level. With the development of modern molecular biology, the research on the relationship between mind and body has been promoted to the molecular level, but at the same time, researchers have paid more attention to the research on molecules, cells, systems and the whole under the guidance of the holistic view. The medical education network has collected and fully considered the influence of environmental and social factors. 2. Theoretically, all kinds of psychological factors affect the normal physiological activities of the body to a certain extent, among which emotions, personality psychological characteristics, behavior patterns and life events play a particularly prominent role in the occurrence, development and rehabilitation of psychosomatic diseases, and multi-factor research has been paid more and more attention.
The development of psychopathology:
Developmental psychopathology is a scientific field that needs to explore abnormal psychological phenomena in combination with individual physical growth and development and psychological and social development. This course can help us to deeply understand the essence of psychological disorders, dynamically understand the development and change process of psychological disorders of children and adolescents, clarify the relationship between psychological disorders and individual psychosomatic and social development, and reveal the causes and psycho-pathological mechanisms of various mental diseases. This knowledge helps us to formulate more perfect and reasonable prevention strategies and programs, so as to effectively prevent and reduce the occurrence of mental illness; It is also helpful for us to formulate a more targeted classification diagnosis system for children's mental diseases and improve the diagnostic level. Naturally, the development of psychopathology research will also help us to develop more effective treatment measures, thus improving our treatment effect on children's mental diseases.
(4) Educational social psychology:
A branch of social psychology that rose in the United States in the 1970s. It uses the theory and method of social psychology to study the social psychological phenomenon and its activity law in the process of education. Educational psychology is a branch of psychology, and its research content is various psychological phenomena and their changes in the process of education and teaching, revealing the psychological laws of the educated in learning and mastering knowledge, skills, developing intelligence and personality under the influence of education and teaching; Study the psychological characteristics of moral quality and the relationship between education and psychological development.
(5) Subject Educational Psychology:
A branch of educational psychology, which studies the psychological characteristics and laws of students in the process of learning and mastering various disciplines and the relationship between subject content, teaching methods and students' psychological development. The research on teaching psychology of individual disciplines appeared earlier, 1895, which was first seen by J. Dewey and J. A. Mackley Lun in an American book. Then, W. F. dearborn's Reading Psychology (1906) came out. Systematically synthesizing the psychology of various disciplines and editing them into books were first seen in Middle School Psychology by C.H. Judd (19 15) and H.B. Reed (1927). The effectiveness of the teaching process depends on teachers' choice of teaching materials and methods and their understanding of the mature process of students' physical, intellectual, emotional and spiritual life, and exert favorable influence to promote the development of this process. The essence of discipline teaching psychology is to cultivate people who can not only adapt to society, but also transform society. Each subject can provide learners with knowledge tools, cultivate intelligence and form personality and habits according to its characteristics. Subject teaching psychology is the basis of teaching methods in various subjects. There are two purposes of its research: ① to study the teaching methods and learning methods of various disciplines by means of experimental psychology, and to systematize the fragmented teaching experience and learning experience to an objective and regular degree; (2) According to the experimental results and exact facts, evaluate the gains and losses of the current textbook compilation and teaching methods, and seek the best way to improve the teaching effect. The research scope of discipline teaching psychology is very wide. All subjects included in the teaching plan of primary and secondary schools, such as Chinese, mathematics, foreign languages, physical education, history, geography, music, fine arts, natural sciences and other social sciences, are included. Primary school and middle school can be studied separately and become "psychology of all subjects in primary school" and "psychology of all subjects in middle school". You can also study each subject separately and form your own independent discipline psychology system, such as Chinese teaching psychology, mathematics teaching psychology, foreign language teaching psychology and so on.
(6) Educational psychology:
Educational psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the psychological activities of educators and educatees in the process of education and teaching, as well as the laws of their emergence and change. It is a borderline subject between educational science and psychological science. Education develops with the development of society. In order to meet the needs of educational development, the tasks of educational psychology are increasing day by day, and the scope of research objects is gradually expanding. In the early stage of development, educational psychology focused on the study of learning psychology and the discussion of learning rules, mostly focusing on intellectual education. With the increasing emphasis on people's all-round development in education, more and more attention is paid to the cultivation of moral behavior, moral emotion and aesthetic emotion. According to the American Psychological Yearbook, the research tasks and objects of educational psychology include eight aspects: the measurement of educational evaluation, the characteristics of children's development, special children and their education, educational methods related to learning psychology, learning of special subjects, learning guidance and mental health, teachers and teachers' behaviors to promote learning, and educational psychological methods.
Third, applied psychology.
(a) social psychology (social psychology has partial sociology and partial psychology):
Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the social psychological phenomena of individuals and groups. Individual social psychological phenomenon refers to the thoughts, emotions and behaviors of individuals restricted by others and groups, such as interpersonal perception, interpersonal attraction, social promotion and social inhibition, obedience, etc. Group social psychological phenomenon refers to the unique psychological characteristics of the group itself, such as group cohesion, social psychological atmosphere and group decision-making. Social psychology is an interdisciplinary subject between psychology and sociology, which is influenced by the two disciplines. From the beginning, social psychology has two different research directions, namely, social psychology in sociology and social psychology in psychology. Different theoretical viewpoints to explain social psychological phenomena do not hinder the basic characteristics that social psychology should have as an independent discipline.
(2) Industrial psychology (or organizational behavior, including management psychology, human resource management, leadership psychology, etc. ):
Industrial psychology is a branch of psychology applied to the industrial field. It mainly studies people's behavior law and its psychological basis at work, including management psychology, labor psychology, engineering psychology, personnel psychology, consumer psychology and so on. In addition to the study of interpersonal relationship, man-machine relationship and the relationship between man and working environment, industrial psychology also needs to study the relationship between the content, methods and methods of labor operation and people's work efficiency, which is the task of labor psychology. The investigation of labor psychology has expanded the research content in many aspects. For example, work planning, work flow design, workplace arrangement, labor quota calculation and evaluation, operation time action analysis, rationalization of working methods, standardization of operation procedures, workload and occupational stress, fatigue and rest, working hours and shift system, labor safety and accident analysis are all research contents of labor psychology.
Industrial psychology is based on psychology (mainly experimental psychology). In the past, many industrial psychologists turned from experimental psychology to industrial psychology, from classical psychophysical methods, reaction time and learning psychology to contemporary cognitive psychology and signal consciousness theory. , had a far-reaching impact on industrial psychology. Many psychological schools have contributed to the theory of industrial psychology. The form and basis of perception emphasized by the holistic view of Gestalt psychology are all conditions that must be considered in digital symbol recognition, graphic recognition and fashion design of industrial psychology. His epiphany theory and K. Lei Wen's theory that the behavior depends on the interaction between man and environment have opened up broad prospects for management psychology. The purpose view of modern psychology, at least from E. tolman, has been liberated from mechanism. It focuses on the purpose and plan of behavior. Procedural theory has also played a far-reaching enlightening role in the operation theory of industrial psychology. Difference psychology originated from Feng Te's general psychology, and Gao Erdun first used normal distribution to describe individual differences. In order to explore the reasons for the differences, Gao Erdun studied the inheritance of parents to their children and put forward the concept of regression. Experimental design from correlation to factor analysis and variance covariance has become an indispensable research tool in industrial psychology. Emerging disciplines such as information theory, system theory and cybernetics developed after World War II have also influenced the development direction of industrial psychology. The theory of Marxist philosophy on the role of labor in the process of human development should be the guiding ideology of industrial psychology research.
Management psychology
Management psychology is a science that studies the laws of psychological activities in management activities. It takes the people in the organization as the specific research object, focusing on the systematic research of people with the same management goals, thus improving efficiency and mobilizing people's enthusiasm. Today's management psychology is based on humanistic thought, and how to motivate people has become an important content of management psychology. Management psychology can be further subdivided into administrative management psychology, educational management psychology, school management psychology and enterprise management psychology according to different management fields.
(3) Clinical psychology (or abnormal psychology):
Clinical psychology is an important branch of applied psychology. In the Dictionary of Psychology edited by Raber, clinical psychology is described in this way: it studies all abnormal behaviors of human beings, and discusses the demonstration, evaluation, classification, treatment, prevention and scientific research of these behaviors. In recent years, the concepts and concepts of individual psychological assistance, crisis intervention, guidance and promotion, and family psychotherapy have given the connotation of clinical psychology renewal. Clinical psychology belongs to the category of applied psychology. Applied psychology is the most vital part of psychology. Clinical psychology pays attention to the measurement and evaluation of human individual's ability and characteristics, and analyzes the individual according to the collected data to support its relevant conclusions. It is an important content of clinical psychology for clinical psychologists to help people with psychological problems, such as psychotherapy and psychological counseling.
(4) Consulting psychology:
Counseling psychology is a branch of psychology, which studies the process, principles, skills and methods of psychological counseling. It has obvious practicability and interdisciplinary. It is not only closely related to educational psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology and medical psychology, but also intersects with pedagogy, sociology, cultural anthropology and medicine. The purpose of psychological counseling is to help people with maladjustment or psychological problems adjust and contact psychological confusion and rebuild an active life. It provides relevant theoretical guidance and practical basis for solving people's psychological problems (psychological crisis, psychological load, etc.). Change people's cognition, emotion, attitude and behavior in study, work, life, health care and disease prevention, so as to improve physical and mental health and better adapt to society, environment and family.
(5) Love psychology:
Love psychology is a science that studies the psychological phenomena in love between men and women and the laws of their occurrence and development, that is, to explore the psychological laws of men and women in love and marriage, including love psychology and marriage psychology. It specifically studies: stabilizing the psychological law of love; Psychological mystery of love between men and women; Psychology of courtship and mate selection; First love psychology; Psychological characteristics of love frustration and love development in various stages after marriage. This is an applied psychology. Love is not only influenced by social, ideological and ethical factors, but also restricted by many complicated psychological factors. Mastering the psychological problems in love will make love sweet and happy.
(6) Criminal psychology, legal psychology, criminal judicial psychology, criminal psychological correction, lie detector psychology (biased towards criminal investigation).
criminal psychology
Criminal psychology is a discipline that studies the formation, development and change of the psychological structure that affects and dominates criminals' criminal behavior and the psychological basis of criminal countermeasures. It is an interdisciplinary subject between criminal science and psychological science, which is both theoretical and practical. It studies the causes, processes and laws of criminals' criminal psychology and criminal behavior from the perspective of psychology, and provides psychological scientific basis and methods for public security and judicial organs to expose and punish crimes and prevent and correct crimes.
According to the theory that criminal psychology has narrow sense and broad sense, the research objects of criminal psychology also have narrow sense and broad sense.
The research object of criminal psychology in a narrow sense is the psychology and behavior of criminals, that is, criminal psychology and crime are its research objects. The psychology of the criminal subject includes its psychological process and personality psychology, the causes and process of the formation of criminal psychological structure, the mechanism of externalization of criminal psychology into criminal behavior, psychological activities in the process of crime, the law of the development and change of criminal psychology, and how to influence and educate the criminal psychological structure. Simply put, it is only to study the personality defects and related psychological problems of criminals.
The research objects of criminal psychology in a broad sense include not only the research objects of criminal psychology in a narrow sense, but also the psychological problems in criminal countermeasures such as preventing crime, punishing crime and educating and reforming criminals. It also includes the psychology of people with criminal tendencies (that is, people who have not committed criminal acts) and the psychology of released prisoners; It also includes victim psychology, witness psychology, investigation psychology, interrogation psychology, trial psychology and criminal psychology prediction. Simply put, criminal psychology in a broad sense not only studies the psychology and behavior of criminals, but also studies the psychological part of countermeasures against crimes, which is considered to be the relevant content of judicial psychology.
legal psychology
Legal psychology is also called legal psychology. It is an applied social psychology field that studies the laws of psychological activities of various people related to law. Also known as legal psychology. This is a borderline subject between law and psychology. China is playing an increasingly important role in the process of legal modernization. This paper expounds the psychological problems in illegal and criminal acts and judicial acts in depth, and further enriches and develops the application of basic theories and technical methods of psychology in the judicial field from the theoretical level; In practice, it is helpful to the construction, reform and perfection of the legal system; It is helpful to improve the accuracy and scientificity of judicial work; It is conducive to reforming criminals and improving the benefits of reforming criminals. Its research contents include legislative psychology, criminal psychology, legal education psychology, judicial psychology, labor reform psychology and civil litigation psychology.
(seven) combined with economics, such as behavioral economics, neuroeconomics, etc.
Consumer psychology
Consumer psychology is closely related to social psychology, sociology and economics. It is a discipline that studies the psychological and behavioral laws of consumers in the process of buying and using goods, and it is one of the main branches of business psychology. Consumer psychology involves both goods and consumers. The research related to commodities includes advertising, commodity characteristics, marketing methods and so on. Research related to consumers includes consumers' attitudes, emotions, motivations, hobbies, sources of consumption information and consumption decision-making process.
behavioral economics
Behavioral economics, as a practical economics, organically combines behavioral analysis theory with economic operation law, psychology with economic science, so as to find out the mistakes or omissions in the current economic model, and then correct the defects of the basic assumptions of mainstream economics about human rationality, self-interest, complete information, utility maximization, and consistent preferences.
Behavioral economics is not a new discipline in western mainstream economics, but it has been silent for decades from 1950 to 1990.
During 2000-2005, at least three Nobel laureates in economics were regarded as "behavioral economists"-Acklau, Smith and Schelling, and at least one behavioral economist was regarded as "econometric economist"-Mike Faton.
In a narrow sense, behavioral economics is the product of the combination of psychology and economic analysis. Broadly speaking, behavioral economics introduces five elements into the framework of economic analysis: (1) "cognitive disharmony-C-D gap"; (2) "Identity-social status"; (3) "personality-emotion set"; (4) "personality-preference evolution"; (5) Situational rationality and local knowledge.
Neuroeconomics
Neuroeconomics is a new interdisciplinary field, which uses neuroscience and technology to determine the neural mechanism related to economic decision. The "economy" here should be understood in a broader sense as any decision-making process made by (human or other animals) when evaluating alternatives. Vernon Smith, winner of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economics, gave a report entitled "Constructivism and Ecological Rationality in Economics" at the awarding ceremony. He mentioned in his report that "the new brain imaging technology has stimulated neuroeconomic research to explore the internal order of the brain and its relationship with human decision-making, including fixed gambling choices and choices mediated by market and other institutional rules". Since then, more and more researchers have begun to pay attention to this topic.
Neuroeconomics combines economics, psychology, neurobiology and other disciplines. Economics tries to describe all the choices in a single and logically unified form. Psychology examines the difference between subjective estimation and objective estimation of value, and puts forward various psychological models to explain these observed behavioral preferences. Neurobiology focuses on the simplest possible neural circuits to explain the simplest measurable behavioral elements. From this point of view, the difference between these disciplines in explaining human choice behavior lies in their different operational levels. In addition, brain imaging technology has become the most popular tool in neuroscience. Many brain imaging techniques compare the differences of brain regions when people perform different tasks, including experimental tasks and control tasks. With the help of brain imaging technology, neuroeconomics can directly measure thoughts and emotions, observe people's behavior from the inside and explore the "black box" problem, thus promoting our understanding of the relationship between brain and behavior. As economists and neurobiologists such as Camerer said, "New tools define new scientific fields and eliminate old boundaries", and neuroeconomics breaks the boundaries of these three disciplines with the help of neuroscience technologies such as brain imaging.
The research topics of neuroeconomics are divided into two categories: 1) determining the neural process in the decision-making process. At this time, the standard economic model can predict the behavior well; 2) Study the "anomaly", at this time, the standard model can no longer predict the behavior well. However, this new discipline does not seem to clearly define its research content, and all the research under its definition framework can be attributed to the research topic of neuroeconomics. In the summary we found, the content involved can be described as all-encompassing. For example, Zak mentioned 1) reward acquisition, 2) certainty, fuzziness and satisfaction delay, 3) learning and strategy; 4) cooperation; Kenning and others mentioned 1) preference, 2) utility and reward system, 3) fairness, altruism and trust, 4) learning, memory and knowledge, and 5) economic decision-making.
(viii) Environmental psychology
Environmental psychology is an applied social psychology field that studies the relationship between environment and human psychology and behavior. Also known as human ecology or ecological psychology. The environment mentioned here mainly refers to the physical environment, including noise, congestion, air quality, temperature, architectural design, personal space and so on.
Another classification of psychological system
According to the nature of theory and practice, psychology can be divided into theoretical psychology and applied psychology.
Theoretical psychology:
Theoretical psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the basic nature theory of psychology, also known as system psychology. Its task is to reveal the laws of interrelation between various psychological phenomena and between psychological phenomena and reality. It can not only explain, predict and consciously dominate people's behavior and psychological activities, but also guide the research of some branches of psychology. It is a subject that studies psychological phenomena and discusses the basic principles of psychological science. It pays attention to the essence, mechanism and process of psychological phenomena, and pursues universal explanation, scientific theory and expected guidance. Like theoretical physics, it is in the basic theoretical position in this discipline group.
Theoretical psychology includes the following categories:
General psychology, developmental psychology, learning psychology, cognitive psychology, personality psychology, social psychology, abnormal psychology, physiological psychology, animal psychology, experimental psychology.
(2) Applied Psychology:
Applied psychology is an important branch of psychology which is developing rapidly. Because of people's needs in work and life, the related research fields of various topics have formed the discipline of psychology. Applied psychology studies the application of the basic principles of psychology in various practical fields, including industry, engineering, organization and management, market consumption, social life, medical care, sports, military affairs, justice, environment and other fields. With the rapid development of economy, science and technology, society and culture, the prospect of applied psychology is more and more broad.
Applied psychology includes the following categories:
Educational psychology, consulting psychology, clinical psychology, industrial psychology, consumer psychology, legal psychology, advertising psychology, psychometrics, management psychology, health psychology.
In a word, theoretical psychology is mainly devoted to discovering general psychological phenomena and laws, while applied psychology is devoted to applying relevant psychological principles, methods and knowledge to practice. But the two are not completely separated, but organically linked, integrated and promoted each other.