Not only in different regions, there are different languages and dialects, but also in the same region, people of different social classes and different ages will have special words to express their unique feelings, which makes it difficult for people of another class or different ages to understand. For example, blacks in the United States, although they also use English, the English they speak has its own characteristics, and it is even called black English.
After mastering a language in a language environment, although you can learn another or several other languages or dialects, it is difficult to completely change the accent of the original language or dialect, and always leave a certain degree of original language accent. People who are familiar with the language can often distinguish the speaker's hometown, identity and professional characteristics from these subtle differences.
Language is an important part of culture. It can even be said that there is no culture without language. Only through language can culture be passed down from generation to generation. Language is an important means to maintain lifestyle, and almost every cultural group has its own unique language.
Language is born out of the needs of life in a specific environment, so a specific environment will inevitably brand the language with a specific brand. In addition, language is a medium for people to exchange ideas, so it will inevitably have an impact on politics, economy, society, science and technology, and even culture itself. Language, a cultural phenomenon, is constantly developing, and its present spatial distribution is also the result of past diffusion, change and development. Therefore, only in the space-time environment can we fully and profoundly understand its relationship with the natural environment and the human environment. Language types: dialogue language, monologue language, written language and internal language.
As far as the brain is concerned, language can be divided into "brain language" and "oral language". Brain language is what we always produce in the brain called "thinking" or "thinking" or "thinking". When brain language is expressed by mouth, it is called "spoken language". Brain language and mouth language are different. First, brain language and mouth language are distorted when expressed. Secondly, spoken language is not the only way to express brain language, because brain language can also be expressed through muscle groups: it is our behavior. Language is an important part of a person's ability.
Languages are divided into "first language" and "second language".
From an early age, through contact with other members of the same language family (such as parents, relatives and people around them), a person naturally learns and skillfully uses the language in the process of communication and thinking. Generally speaking, one's mother tongue or mother tongue is one's first language and main language.
After a person is born, the first language to master and use is called the first language. A second language refers to a country's non-native language. Around the world, a second language is often used at the same time as the first language. The function of language is mainly divided into two aspects: social function and thinking function, in which social function includes information transmission function and interpersonal interaction function.
Language is a tool of thinking and communication, which is closely related to thinking. It is the carrier, material shell and manifestation of thinking. Language is a symbol system, a system of vocabulary building materials and grammar organization rules with pronunciation as the material shell and semantics as the meaning content. Language is a social phenomenon, the most important communication tool for human beings, a tool for thinking and transmitting information, and a carrier for human beings to preserve their cognitive achievements. Language has stability and nationality.
Language is the creation of human beings, and only human beings have real language. Many animals also make sounds to express their feelings or convey information in groups, but these are just fixed procedures and cannot be changed at will. Only human beings can combine meaningless sounds into meaningful morphemes in various ways, and then combine a large number of morphemes into words in various ways to express infinite meaning in the form of endless changes.
After human beings created language, they also created words. Words are visual forms of language. Writing breaks through the limitation of spoken language in space and time and can play a greater role. Symbolic and systematic
First of all, language is a symbol of social customs to express ideas, and the essence of symbols is social. To some extent, I want to escape from the consciousness of some small collectives and circles in society. This is the most important feature of language. Language is a social contract. It is actually a habit of collective consciousness for a society to accept one expression and reject another. Or it can be said that there is no difference between good and bad, the key is which expression to use.
Language symbol is an entity with two sides. On the one hand, language represents the name of things, so any language is the image of the concept, that is, it has meaning; In addition, language depends on sound, which is the medium of expression, so language is also the image of sound, and sound is the other side of language, that is to say, language has signifier.
Arbitrariness and linearity
The so-called arbitrariness means that there is an arbitrary connection between the signifier and signified of language symbols and words, which is not arguable. Even if some can be demonstrated, they are generally not.
This is one of the reasons why there are so many languages in the world.
The so-called linearity means that the signifier of language depends on sound, so it can only spread in one-dimensional sound space, but can't break through the scope and ability of sound. Therefore, when analyzing language, language enablement is done in the order of horizontal appearance of words, which also causes the limitations of language use and expression. However, the phonology of language determines that the linearity of language is an inevitable result that cannot be eliminated.
Invariance and variability
Language is a constantly moving, changing and developing system. Every element in this system has certain stability and variability. Stability is the premise of the existence of language system, and it is also the necessary condition for language itself to be used in large-scale research. Variability is not only caused by the law of language as a continuous derivative development within a system, but also the expression of language inheritance. Everything is constantly moving, changing and developing, new things are constantly produced, and old things are constantly dying out. So is language. Although the change of the language system is not obvious and the speed is not very fast, the language itself, driven by the use and influenced by many factors such as society and culture, is constantly developing towards the trend of economy, simplicity, practicality, tolerance and strong expressiveness.
Every component of language has different ways and forms of change, and the speed of change is also different. However, in previous studies, we have gradually mastered more and more laws to explain and predict language changes. This not only shows that people have made great achievements in their attention and exploration of linguistics, but also shows that the variability of linguistics is still well-founded.
Inheritance and communication
In a sense, language is an effective carrier for the inheritance and storage of human culture. Therefore, in its own development, it gradually shows strong inheritance and communication.
The so-called inheritance means that in life and production, language consciously or unconsciously attracts or urges people to directly or indirectly influence related people or spread to other wider fields through the tool of language. Achieve the effect of inheritance. In addition, in the development of human society, language not only stores the essence information of civilization between people, between ancient people and modern people, and between China people and foreigners, but also bears the bridge of civilization development. At the same time, because of its powerful communicative function, language also shows its unique communicative function, which can cope with various changes in rich communication, produce more expressive language and produce more practical significance based on life.
Representation language representation is the way in which the information carried by language materials exists in the mind. The expression of language is hierarchical. Pronunciation mechanism of language: respiratory organs, larynx and vocal cords, oral cavity, nasal cavity and pharyngeal cavity.
2. The central mechanism of language activity: Blocker area, Wernicke area and angular gyrus.
(1) Aphasia caused by bullous lesions is usually called motor aphasia or expressive aphasia.
(2) Wernicke's disease can cause receptive aphasia, which is a kind of language agnosia. Cutting or damaging the nerve fiber bundle-the arcuate bundle connecting Wernicke's area and Blocker's area will also produce the same effect.
(3) Hui Jiao realizes the conversion between spoken and written language. Angular gyrus injury can cause semantic aphasia.
3. The advantages and language activities of language in the two hemispheres of the brain. Studies have confirmed that language activity is mainly the function of the left hemisphere of the brain, but the right hemisphere of the brain also plays an important role in language understanding. 1. Physical properties of speech: pitch, intensity, length and timbre.
2. Phoneme is the smallest phonetic unit that can distinguish meanings in a language. Phonemes are divided into vowels and consonants. Studying the distinctive features of phonemes is helpful to explain people's perception of speech. Various factors affecting speech perception are: speech similarity, speech intensity, noise masking, context, syntax and semantics.
3. Factors affecting vocabulary understanding: word position information, orthographic rules, letter length or stroke number, font structure, word frequency, phonetic function, contextual function and semantic function.
4. Factors affecting sentence comprehension: sentence pattern, word order, context, syntactic analysis and semantic analysis.
5. Factors that affect text comprehension: inference, context and graphic function. It can be roughly divided into godsend theory, human creation theory and labor creation theory.
God-given theory
It is believed that language is a theory given to mankind by God.
Representative views:
(1) In the Vedas of Brahmanism in India, language is a special ability endowed by God to human beings.
(2) China Miao legend: Mountain gods create people and teach people language.
Essence: Under the condition of extremely low scientific and cultural level at that time, people can't explain how this wonderful phenomenon of language came into being, so they have to attribute it to the gift of God.
Theory of human creation
People think that language is created by people themselves, not given by God.
Representative views:
① representative theories: Language originated from human imitation of various external sounds. This view can only explain the emergence of onomatopoeia, but not the origin of human language.
② Social Contract Theory: Language originated from people's mutual agreement. This view pays attention to the social attribute of language and the arbitrariness of language symbols, but it cannot explain how people without language agree with each other.
(3) Gesture theory: Before using spoken language, human beings experienced a stage of gesture language. This view can't explain how gesture language developed into vocal language.
(4) Interjections: The vocal language of human beings evolved from all kinds of shouts expressing feelings, and it is impossible to explain how interjections developed into other words with rational meaning.
⑤ The labor voice says: The vocal language of human beings is developed from the labor voice of human beings. This view pays attention to the relationship between the origin of language and labor, but it can't explain how the labor number developed into a language.
Essence: It is the result of subjective speculation and lack of scientific basis.
Labor creation theory
The origin of language must meet three conditions: ① the thinking ability of human beings should be developed to a certain extent. To develop a certain level of thinking ability, human beings must be able to classify and summarize things in the objective world, and have certain memory, imagination, judgment and reasoning abilities. With this psychological condition, language can be produced. ② People should have certain physiological conditions. Human larynx and mouth must evolve to make clear sounds, so that it is possible to produce audio language. It is necessary for human society to produce language. When human society develops to a certain extent, we must say something to each other. With such social conditions, it is necessary to produce language. These three necessary conditions for the origin of language are indispensable, which are created by human labor. Engels' point of view on the origin of language: Engels said: "Language comes from labor and labor ……………" Labor puts forward the social need to produce language; It provides psychological and physiological conditions for the production of language. Labor also improved the pronunciation organs of primitive people and provided the necessary physiological conditions for the production of language. It should be said that Engels' exposition on the origin of language has been quite comprehensive. 1, the generation of language means that people speak or write their own thoughts through the activities of language organs or hands, which includes two forms: speaking and writing. The units of language production mainly include phonemes, syllables, morphemes, words, phrases and sentences.
2. Language production can be divided into different stages. Such as: construction stage: determine the ideas to be expressed according to the purpose; Transformation stage: using syntactic rules to transform ideas into language forms; Implementation stage: information in language form is oral or written. Translation is a language activity, that is, a language activity that transforms one language into another without changing its meaning. Translation includes oral translation and written text translation.
The original meaning of translation refers to the translation between different languages, and later it is often used to refer to the translation of ancient Chinese between the same characters. There are obvious differences between the two: the modern translation of ancient Chinese in the same language is mainly used to overcome the obstacles of different words in ancient and modern times, and only contains the time factors in ancient and modern times, so it is sometimes called annotation translation or translation annotation with annotations; Translation between different languages also includes regional factors. Translation here refers to the latter.
In China, this translation was recorded as early as Zhou Li. There is a passage in Four Mouths of Zhou Li Qiu Guan: "Like Xu Zhang, the envoy of the barbarian country, Fujian and Rongdi, he handed down the words of the king and told him how to be friendly. If you enter the guest at that time, you must be polite and pass it on. " This means that he is an official who is responsible for communicating with neighboring barbarians, Fujian and Rongdi. They are responsible for conveying what Wang said and making neighboring countries understand it, so as to close the relationship between the king and the vassal States. If an emissary comes to the kingdom, it is necessary to coordinate etiquette and translate the language.
In this paper, "rather than words" refers to the current "translation" and is the earliest translator, and "Xiang" is the earliest term used to express the meaning of translation. At that time, only the languages of neighboring countries were translated.
At that time, there were other names besides "Xiang" and "Xiang" used to express the translator and the translator's meaning, which were recorded in detail in the Book of Rites. "The Book of Rites" said: "People of the five parties have different appetites because they don't know the language. Achieve their wishes (express their meaning) and understand their wishes (understand their ideas). The east says "send", the south says "image", the west says "d Ρ" and the north says "translation". This "post", "image" and "translation" were the official names of translators who were responsible for translating East, West, North and South languages at that time, and they could also be used as translation terms. The words "image transmission and image translation" are also used to refer to translation, or they are called "image transmission", "image transmission" and "image translation".
Among them, "image" and "translation" are the most widely used terms, which are the main terms of translation meaning at that time. They not only guide the translation of northern national languages, but also often refer to translation. Like Xu Xiang, some translators were called "Yi Xu", and later they were called "translators". "Translation" is originally the training of "translation" sounds. Jia said in Preface to Qiu Guan: "Translation is easy, that is, changing words to make the other party understand." Therefore, "translation" refers to the activities of language conversion and change.
China's translation of written records began with the translation of Buddhist scriptures after the exchange between Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and the Western Regions, that is, the translation of ancient Indian Sanskrit. However, as far as literature is concerned, the earliest use case of translation is Liang Huijiao's Biography of a Monk, Translation of Scriptures and Interpretation of Buddhist Figures, in which "the first shaman's Buddhist doctrine appeared in the Buddha country, but Sanskrit was not translated". At that time, some people used "translation" alone, such as "the Buddha's shadow in the Hu people's mind, translating the scriptures into Chinese" in Yu Xin's Ying Zhao. This "translation" is "translation" and "translation"
In the history of Buddhism, the first translator of Buddhist scriptures was Ka Ya Morten, an ancient Indian monk. In the tenth year of Han Yongping (67), he and another Indian monk, Zhu Falan, were invited to Luoyang to ride the scriptures on a white horse. The following year, they jointly translated the Forty-two Chapters in the newly-built White Horse Temple in Hanxi. This is the beginning of translating Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. Since then, more than 100 scholars from India and Pakistan have been engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the most famous of which is Kumarajiva from Chekhov (a famous Western Han Dynasty, now Kuqa, Xinjiang), who translated the Goblet of Fire, the Diamond Sutra and other very important Buddhist scriptures.
Some local monks who seek dharma in the west are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the most famous of which are Fa Xian in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and Xuanzang in the Tang Dynasty. Fa Xian's westward expedition to Buddhism lasted for fifteen years, and he brought back a large number of classics in his seventies in 4 12 AD, from which he devoted himself to translating Buddhist scriptures. Xuanzang studied in the Western Heaven for seventeen years. After returning to Chang 'an in 645 AD, he also specialized in translation. * * * translated 75 Buddhist scriptures 1335 volumes, becoming a master in the history of Buddhist scripture translation.
Therefore, the formation of "translation" is closely related to ancient Indian Buddhism. The main content of China's early translation is Buddhist scriptures. It was not until the late Ming Dynasty that western learning spread to the east that it began to translate new technologies such as astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe. The rise of the New Literature Movement in China after the May 4th Movement is also closely related to translation.
In ancient times, "translation" was written in different ways, such as "excellent translation, unparalleled" in Biography of Southern Tang Dynasty in Song Dynasty and "interpretation that can stand the test" in Biography of Heroes of Children. There are essential differences between human language symbols and other animal communication methods such as shouting and dancing, which are mainly reflected in the following aspects:
1, arbitrariness
2. The clarity of the unit: human language is emitted one by one through the vocal organs, while the so-called "language" of animals is inseparable. It expresses a certain meaning through a group of shouts or dances.
3. Duality of structure: human language is divided into phoneme layer and symbol layer (or grammar layer).
4. Productivity: Also called creativity or openness.
5. Teaching
6. The number of Chinese speakers is about 654.38+06 billion, accounting for about 20% of the world population, regardless of time and place.
The number of Spanish speakers is about 422 million, accounting for 4.88% of the world population.
The number of English speakers is about 3.365438 billion, accounting for 4.68% of the world population.
The number of Arabic speakers is about 2 1 1 billion, accounting for 3. 12% of the world population.
The number of people who speak Hindi is about 6.5438+86 million, accounting for 2.74% of the world population.
The evolution of language from simple to complex is generally from simple to complex, and the language is becoming more and more complex, which is naturally the change brought about by cultural development. When a girl reaches the age of sixteen, she is "28". When a man reaches the age of 30, he is called "Li", and when he reaches the age of 60, he is called "Hua Jia". This is all because I read a book, which is written in it. The description of beauty is written as: "the capacity of sinking fish and falling geese, the posture of closing the moon and being ashamed of flowers." Conveniently speaking, it is "the advantage of water". Failing the exam is considered as "leaving Sun Shan". Pretending to say, "make up the number." I'm used to saying "common". Arrogance is called "arrogance" and "arrogance" When a woman gives birth to a child, the boy is called "Nongzhang" and the girl is called "playing with tile" (the original spindle in ancient times was called tile), so this statement is educated and elegant. The speech of ordinary people is becoming more and more complicated. Because in the old society, soldiers often bullied the people, and the people didn't like the word "soldier". So people take the word "soldier" apart and call it "Qiu Ba". Sometimes it is called "Tai Wei" to show contempt and sarcasm. Arrogance is said to be "cocky". These are all often heard.
There are many common idioms in ordinary people's lives, which are also summarized from life. They are very concise expressions from simple to deep and from simple to complex. Rushing to work will say "get up early and be greedy for the dark" and "in a hurry" Trivial things say, "Trivial things." When arranging work, it is said that some people are "choosy". Who are you cursing? Said, "Dogs fight with people." . Some words are not convenient to say directly. If there may be unexpected danger, say "anything happens". Those who have seen plays, storytellers and novels will also borrow their words, such as "see you later", "sharpen your guns when you get cold feet" and say "go home" and "go well" when you go home. What's more, he wittily said, "Money makes the mare go", "Kill the chicken to show the monkey" and "You go your way, I'll go my single-plank bridge". "Mules or horses come out for a walk", "When monks ring bells every day", "Every family has its own lessons". Further, there is humor: "punch a swollen face to fill a fat man" and "pee to see the imperial calendar". Cultivated land is said to be "repairing soil", and the white-faced niche on the stage is called "butter niche". Others put forward things that they don't want to mention, saying, "Which pot is not open?" . To say that people are confused is: "count the money if you sell it." The names of someone's two children are "three thousand Ichiro" and "five hundred Hui", which sounds like Japanese names. In fact, it was because my parents violated the family planning regulations and gave birth to this extra boy and girl, and they were fined. One was fined 3000 yuan and the other was fined 1500 yuan, so I chose these two names-of course, this must be a joke.
Speaking skills: Speak with moderation, and act with moderation. Since ancient times, China people have paid attention to speaking and doing things in a measured way. The ancients said, "Don't lose heart when you meet a silent person;": When you see a smug person, you must control your mouth. " "Everything is reasonable, and human cultivation is an article. "It can be seen that whether talking to people, interacting with people, or doing things with people, there is a mystery of discretion.
Pay attention to scale and discretion when speaking and doing things. What are the main aspects of this "scale and scale"?
First, it's impossible to speak badly without hard work. If you don't speak well and speak to the point, others may not understand, understand or figure out your true intentions, and your ideas or requirements will not be taken seriously and accepted. Not only will things be impossible, but they will often be despised. How can this be exchanged for the appreciation and goodwill of others? How can you win the friendship and respect of others? In the same way, you can't help doing things for others. "It's unreasonable to come and go." When others ask you to do something, you don't try your best and encounter difficulties. How can we count on the enthusiasm of others to help us?
Second, you should not talk too much and do things too reluctantly. I like to talk big, but my words are too sharp. It makes people unhappy, and feels that you don't understand the general idea, rules, and quality. Such people often stay away from others and can't communicate with others normally. Too unwilling to do things, dare to undertake tasks that are capable and incapable, and want to undertake things that cannot be done. As a result, you can't do anything. You can only add unnecessary trouble to yourself and leave yourself with the impression of low ability or not paying attention to integrity.
Speak in moderation, communicate in moderation, act strategically, and act in moderation, and others will easily accept you, like you, help you, behave inappropriately, and everyone will hate you, feel sad all the time, and run into a wall everywhere.
The scale of speaking and the discretion of doing things are similar to those of a BMW. If you control it well, you can take the lead from afar every day. If you don't control it well, you may trip and even kick others. One of the simplest definitions is that language is a way of oral communication. Because the communication mode of speaking and writing is a purposeful behavior, language is practical; Because language is a social symbol, language communication can only be carried out effectively after all participants have widely understood the interrelated factors such as human nonverbal cues, motives, social and cultural roles, so language is social and established. Language learning and use depends on biological, cognitive, psychological and environmental factors. Language is much more complicated than any other animal communication system, which is what distinguishes human beings from animals.