1, as a form, "knowledge" has no entity, and it must rely on some carrier as its existence condition.
Knowledge is an expression that reflects certain thoughts and emotions. As a form, knowledge is the external objective expression of the crystallization of human mind, so it must exist by using the dual carriers of the material of human brain and the material on which external expression depends.
2. As a form, "knowledge" is timeless. Once "knowledge" is produced, it presents an objective state that can be perceived by people. Later, whether it is supported by physical materials in the form of * * or abstractly transformed into images and stored in the memory of the brain, as far as the formal characteristics of knowledge are concerned, it has the characteristic of never wearing out.
3. As a form, "knowledge" is determined by its materiality, and it can copy itself infinitely in space. Humans can use different carriers, unlimited in quantity, and copy the same structure and form at the same time, without affecting each other.
What are the characteristics of knowledge?
With the joint efforts of scholars at home and abroad, many knowledge representation methods have been deeply studied. At present, the commonly used knowledge representation methods mainly include predicate logic representation, production representation, framework representation, semantic network representation, object-oriented representation, ontology-based knowledge representation and so on.
This paper will introduce the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of these knowledge representation methods, and make some analysis and comparison. Logical representation of (1) words.
Predicate logical representation refers to various forms of knowledge representation based on formalization, and describes objects, properties, conditions and relationships with logical formulas. For example, "Spaceship in Orbit" can be described as: (npaceshiporbit) It is one of the earliest and most widely used knowledge representation methods in the field of artificial intelligence. Its fundamental purpose is to symbolize the logical argument in mathematics, and prove from which known correct statements a new statement is derived through mathematical deduction, so that this new statement is also correct.
In this method, the knowledge base can be regarded as the body of a set of logical formulas, and the modification of the knowledge base is to add or delete logical formulas. The knowledge is represented by logical method, and the knowledge described by natural language is formally described by introducing predicates and functions, and the relevant logical formulas are obtained, which are expressed by machine internal codes.
Under the representation of logical method, resolution or other methods can be used for accurate reasoning. Predicate logic representation is based on formal logic, which has the following advantages: ① Predicate logic representation has clear and unified provisions on how to construct complex things from simple explanations, effectively separating knowledge from the programs that handle knowledge, and has a clear structure; ② Predicate logic is closely related to databases, especially relational databases; First-order predicate logic has a complete logical reasoning algorithm; Logical reasoning can ensure the logical consistency of new and old knowledge in the knowledge base and the correctness of deductive conclusions; As a formal reasoning method, logical reasoning depends on any specific field and has great universality.
However, the logical representation of words also has the following shortcomings: ① it is difficult to express process and heuristic knowledge; ② Knowledge base is difficult to manage due to the lack of organizational principles; (3) Because it is a weak proof process, when the number of facts increases, there may be a combination explosion in the proof process; ④ The expressed content is separated from the reasoning process and carried out according to formal logic, which discards a lot of information contained in the content, making the processing process longer and the work efficiency lower. Predicate logic is suitable for expressing factual knowledge such as the state, attributes and concepts of things, as well as some causal relationship between things, but it can't express uncertain knowledge, so the reasoning efficiency is very low.
(2) Production rule representation. Production knowledge representation is one of the commonly used knowledge representations.
It is expressed in the form of "IFHEN" and production rules according to the causal relationship between all kinds of knowledge in the memory mode of human brain. This rule form captures the characteristics of human behavior in solving problems, and solves problems through the cycle process of cognition-action.
A production system consists of three basic parts: rule base, comprehensive database and control mechanism. Production rule representation has obvious advantages: ① natural, production rule representation represents knowledge in the form of "if-then", which is basically consistent with human judgment knowledge, intuitive, natural and easy to reason; (2) Except for the overall structure of the system, the interaction mode of each part and the expression form of rules, there are no specific provisions on other implementation details of the system, which makes designers have greater flexibility in developing practical systems and can adopt appropriate implementation technologies as needed, especially introducing various heuristic knowledge that is meaningful for solving problems into the system; (3) The format of expression is fixed, the form is single, and the rules are independent of each other. The whole process is just the match of antecedents and the action of the latter.
The information provided by matching is only success and failure, and the matching generally has no recursive and complicated calculation, so the system is easy to establish; ④ Because the knowledge in the rule base has the same format, and the global database can be accessed by all rules, the rules can be processed uniformly; ⑤ Good modularity, production rule is the most basic knowledge unit in rules, and rules can only be linked through the global database, and cannot be called each other, which increases the modularity of rules and is conducive to the addition, deletion and modification of knowledge; ⑥ Production representation can represent both certain knowledge units and uncertain knowledge; It is not only beneficial to express heuristic knowledge, but also convenient to express process knowledge; It can represent domain knowledge and meta knowledge. However, the representation of production rules also has the following shortcomings: ① The reasoning efficiency is low: because the knowledge in the rule base has a unified format, the relationship between rules must be based on the global database, and the reasoning process is a repetitive process of "matching-conflict elimination-execution".
In addition, in each reasoning cycle, the conditional part of all rules should be searched and pattern matched continuously. In principle, this will inevitably reduce the efficiency of reasoning, and with the increase of the number of rules, the shortcomings of inefficiency will become more and more prominent, and even the problem of combinatorial explosion will appear. (2) Not intuitive: there are independent rules stored in the database, and the relationship between them is difficult to view in an intuitive way; (3) Lack of flexibility: the knowledge expressed by production has a certain format, and the rules cannot be directly called, so it is difficult to express knowledge by structure or hierarchical relationship, and it is impossible to provide flexible explanations.
Production method is the first choice of knowledge representation in expert system at present. DENDRAL system used to determine molecular structure in chemical industry, MYCIN system used to diagnose meningitis and blood virus infection, and PROSPECTOR system used to estimate mineral resources are all examples of knowledge representation and reasoning by this method.
(3) Semantic network representation. Semantic network is one of the important methods of knowledge representation, and it is a flexible and expressive method of knowledge representation.
Semantic network uses a directed graph composed of nodes and marked edges to describe the relationship between events, concepts, situations, actions and objects. Marked directed graph can describe the relationship between objects very naturally.
Semantic network is widely used because of its naturalness.
What are the four characteristics of knowledge economy?
From the perspective of production input, creative production mainly depends on the input of knowledge.
In the agricultural society and its previous era, wealth creation relied more on physical strength than mental power, and population was an important indicator of social wealth production capacity. Knowledge input is very limited.
In the early days of industrial society, although machines replaced a lot of manpower, the role of technology and management personnel in production was not fully exerted. Most of the work is manual labor, and personal skills and skills are beginning to be valued.
With the development of technology, the proportion of mental work is increasing, and the investment in scientific research, education and training is also increasing. In the whole industrial society, although knowledge always plays a role in the economy, capital investment is very important for economic growth.
In recent years, the status of knowledge in the economy has been rising, and it has become the most important production input. This is mainly reflected in: R&D investment has become the most important investment of enterprises, and intangible assets investment exceeds tangible assets investment; Capital investment must match knowledge investment in order to avoid risks and gain benefits; Economic growth mainly depends on the input of knowledge, and the return on investment of intangible assets such as R&D, education and training is much higher than that of tangible assets such as machinery and equipment.
From the perspective of product types, human production has experienced two stages, namely, the stage centered on the production of hardware products and the stage centered on the production of software products. Hardware products mainly include products from manufacturing, processing and other related industries.
Its production is characterized by a large proportion of hardware investment, underdeveloped service industry and insufficient attention to scientific research and learning. This stage corresponds to the early stage of the whole agriculture and industry. Although the production of such products continues, the proportion of their output value in the national economy has been greatly reduced.
Software products mainly include general products produced by service industries and cultural industries related to study, tourism and entertainment. This stage corresponds to the middle and late period of industrial society.
Information technology is playing an increasingly important role in the production of such products. The development of information technology not only makes the production of software products quickly become the center of the production process, but also urges the production of creative products to take its place.
This situation can be understood from the following three aspects. First of all, information technology accelerates the stratification of the industry.
On the one hand, the industry is constantly divided, and there are different agriculture, industry and service industries. The application of information technology makes these industries contain more information.
This not only means that the production process needs more and more knowledge input, but also means more knowledge production, thus upgrading production to knowledge. On the other hand, knowledge-based industries, especially high-tech and cultural industries, are also rising rapidly and becoming important economic components.
Secondly, knowledge industry is divided into upstream industry, intermediate industry and downstream industry. Downstream industries are related to the replication and dissemination of general knowledge and are closely related to traditional industries.
Its product production basically belongs to the production of software products, but it belongs to low-level software products. The midstream industry is connected with the software industry, and most software products are produced by it.
This is an industry that developing countries are expected to compete first. The vast majority of information industry and service industry belong to this category.
Upstream industries are mainly related to creative production. Creativity can be divided into hard creativity and soft creativity according to its technical tendency and management tendency.
Hard creativity includes high-tech research and development, and the products are mainly patents and major scientific research achievements. At present, a large part of enterprises' investment is in this field.
Soft creativity mainly includes production of management knowledge. Its products include major business policies and development plans.
This is related to the national competitiveness. Third, creative production is independent of general production, and becomes a parallel production with the general production process, even the center of the production process.
At present, many large companies have begun to concentrate on producing new technologies and products, leaving the general production of products to other producers. For example, Nike shoes is the largest footwear company in the world. This shoe enterprise with an annual output value of $654.38+0.6 billion does not produce shoes at all, but goes all out to develop new products.
They collect a lot of consumption information from the world and carry out creative production. Then the creative achievements-the production of general new products are given to other enterprises.
For another example, some new drugs are produced directly from the laboratory without the need to establish corresponding factories. The laboratory is a factory. 2. Distribution characteristics: the degree of knowledge ownership becomes the main basis of distribution, including the quantity and ability of knowledge ownership.
From the basis of distribution, the traditional distribution is based on the possession of means of production. In agricultural society, the means of production mainly include land and labor tools.
Landlords are in a dominant position in distribution because they own land and labor tools. In industrial society, capital can buy the means of production needed for production, which is the main basis of distribution.
Capitalists are in a dominant position in participating in distribution because they have funds. With the progress of technology, knowledge-based labor plays an increasingly prominent role in wealth production, and economic growth is increasingly dependent on the production, diffusion and application of knowledge, and knowledge has become the most critical factor in traditional means of production and production.
Because knowledge workers have knowledge in the sense of means of production, the traditional employment relationship has changed. In recent years, the surplus of funds and the increase of investment risks have weakened the competitiveness of funds directly participating in distribution.
The operating room needs surgeons more than surgeons. The real wealth of hospitals is not expensive equipment, but the skills and knowledge of doctors with decades of experience.
Without this knowledge, the expensive operating room in the hospital is worthless. This characteristic of knowledge makes the degree of knowledge possession the basis of distribution.
Judging from the decision-making of distribution, the distribution in the past was decided by both employers and employees. In an agricultural society, landlords hold the initiative in distribution.
Farmers have only a limited right to speak. In industrial society, capitalists hold the initiative of distribution.
Workers have only a limited right to speak. With the growth of the blue-collar working class, trade unions have made important contributions to the fight for the right to speak, and carried out the preliminary work of equal participation of employers and employees in distribution.
The emergence of knowledge workers blurs the boundary between blue-collar workers and white-collar workers, and the traditional blue-collar workers gradually decline. Knowledge workers have the meaning of means of production.
What are the characteristics of knowledge economy?
The characteristics of knowledge economy are:
Knowledge productivity is the decisive leading force of social productivity.
In the era of agricultural economy, a large number of labor force is the main productive force, in the era of industrial economy, capital is the main productive force, and in the era of knowledge economy, knowledge, especially high-tech knowledge, is the main productive force, which has gradually changed from material-oriented social productive force to intelligence-oriented social productive force. The intellectual property industry has developed rapidly, and its proportion in the national economy has gradually increased. At the same time, material production has been constantly transformed, increasing the gold content of knowledge.
Knowledge innovation and technological innovation are important sources of continuous innovation of knowledge productivity.
From the perspective of production input, innovative production mainly depends on the input of knowledge. In the agricultural society and the times before it, wealth was created more by physical strength than by brain power. Population is an important indicator of social wealth productivity. Knowledge input is very limited. With the development of science and technology, the proportion of mental work is increasing. In recent years, the status of knowledge in the economy has been rising, and it has become the most important production input, which is mainly reflected in the fact that R&D investment has become an important input of enterprises, intangible assets investment has surpassed tangible assets investment, and economic growth mainly depends on knowledge investment.
The quantity and ability of knowledge become the main basis of distribution.
The traditional distribution is based on the possession of the means of production. With the progress of technology, the role of knowledge labor in wealth production is becoming more and more prominent, and economic growth is increasingly dependent on the production, diffusion and application of knowledge. Knowledge has become the most critical factor in the traditional sense of means of production and production. From the perspective of distribution purpose, the former distribution purpose was to meet the needs of material life, but now people's distribution purpose not only goes beyond the framework of traditional material life to the spiritual direction, but also the opportunity to obtain creative spiritual activities has become the distribution goal.
Knowledge consumption becomes the dominant consumption.
All human economic activities are to meet the growing needs of material life and spiritual life. With the progress of society, the knowledge content in products and services is increasing. The high-tech content of products in the knowledge age contains a lot of software knowledge. The consumption of knowledge products needs not only corresponding knowledge, but also corresponding skills. For example, people who play video games, with different skills, get different entertainment, and learn and create different things. This phenomenon is reflected in different levels of knowledge consumption. The endless demand for material consumption knowledge makes product development change from raw material consumption to intellectual consumption. Knowledge consumption has gradually become the dominant consumption.
As a brand-new economic form, knowledge economy is quietly emerging. Under the knowledge-based economy model, knowledge-based and technology-based enterprises have become the most dynamic forms of economic organization in economic activities, representing the direction of future economic development.
What are the important characteristics and necessary prerequisites for acquiring knowledge?
Ability is an individual psychological characteristic of people's ability to solve problems and a necessary condition for completing tasks/achieving goals.
Ability directly affects the efficiency of activities and is the most important internal factor for the successful completion of activities. The completion of any activity requires the combination of people's multiple abilities.
For example, when children draw, they must have complete perception ability, ability to remember and reproduce images, ability to express the abstraction and imagination of objects with lines, ability to observe the length ratio intuitively, ability to estimate the relationship between size and brightness, perspective ability and flexible writing ability. A person has some outstanding abilities and can combine them to accomplish related tasks well, so we say that he has some talents.
Talent is a unique combination of abilities. A person's ability can't be outstanding in everything, even flawed, but people can make up for their shortcomings by using their own advantages or developing other abilities, and can also successfully complete tasks or show their talents.
This phenomenon is called compensation of ability. For example, blind people lack vision, but relying on the abnormal development of touch, hearing, smell and imagination, they can walk, recognize money, remember Braille, write or play music, and sometimes show amazing talent.
For another example, some people's mechanical memory ability is weak or declined in adulthood, but they can still rely on or develop their own unique understanding and judgment ability, master all kinds of knowledge or make weighty decisions, which is not worse than others. All these show that talent does not depend on one kind of ability, but on the unique combination of various abilities.
If a person's various abilities or main abilities have reached the most complete development and combination in activities, and he can creatively complete various activities or tasks in a certain field, he is usually called a genius. Genius is not born, but is cultivated by virtue of the sound physiological conditions brought by nature, the influence of acquired environment and education, and subjective efforts.
Ability and activity are linked, and only through activities can we develop and understand human ability. But not all psychological characteristics displayed in activities are abilities.
Only those psychological characteristics that directly affect the efficiency of activities and enable the tasks of activities to be successfully completed are abilities. Lively, calm, irritable, modest, proud and other psychological characteristics. Although it has a certain relationship with the smooth progress of activities, it is not a basic condition that directly affects activities in a general sense, so it cannot be called ability.
The sense of rhythm and melody is very important for engaging in musical activities; Accurate estimation of proportional relationship is very important for painting activities; Careful observation, accurate memory and quick thinking are essential to accomplish many activities. The lack of these psychological characteristics will affect the efficiency of related activities and make them unable to proceed smoothly, so they are the ability to ensure the completion of related activities.
Ability can be divided into general ability and special ability. Such as observation, memory, attention, thinking, imagination and so on. It is a universal ability, suitable for a wide range of activities, and closely related to cognitive and creative activities, so as to ensure that people can master and use knowledge more easily and effectively, that is, intelligence (the core of intelligence is logical thinking ability).
Rhythm, color discrimination, etc. , belongs to the special ability, only play a role in special activities. General ability and special ability are organically linked.
The development of general ability creates favorable conditions for the development of special ability; While developing special abilities in various activities, it will also promote the development of general abilities. Various abilities do not simply exist side by side, but are interrelated, influenced and integrated to ensure the smooth completion of activities.
This qualitative combination of various abilities in activities is called talent. Teploff made a systematic study of musical talent.
People with musical talent must have three basic abilities: (1) sense of melody, that is, the ability to distinguish the melody characteristics of melody, which is reflected in the perception of the accuracy of tone and the emotional response to melody; ⑵ Musical representation, that is, the auditory ability that can reflect the relationship between pitch and strength at will, is reflected in the reproduction of the heard melody and the transmission and transformation between hearing and vocalization; ⑶ sense of rhythm, that is, the ability to feel the rhythm of music, is reflected in the keen sense of the time relationship between notes and the ability to accurately reproduce. Research shows that different people may have different ability combinations in the same activity.
For example, students who perform well in the same music have a strong ability in one basic music, while others have a strong ability in another basic music. This combination is unique.
Rapidly developing talents are geniuses, the most complete combination of various abilities, enabling people to creatively complete some or more activities. Although both ability and knowledge are important conditions to ensure the success of activities, there are differences between them.
Knowledge is the summary and generalization of historical experience of human society; Ability is a person's relatively stable personality and psychological characteristics, and a large part of it is a summary of knowledge. The formation and development of ability is much slower than the acquisition of knowledge.
Ability and knowledge are closely related. On the one hand, ability is formed and developed in the process of mastering knowledge, and it is impossible to develop any ability without learning and training.
On the other hand, mastering knowledge is based on certain ability, which is the inherent condition and possibility of mastering knowledge, and restricts the speed, depth, difficulty and consolidation of mastering knowledge. But the development of ability and knowledge is not completely consistent.
Different people may have equal knowledge, but not necessarily equal ability, and vice versa. Generally speaking, if you get good grades, your intelligence level may be higher.
But there are different reasons for achieving excellent results, which may be cleverness or hard work, but hard work and concentration are also a kind of ability. Similarly, many extremely smart children refuse to accept the existing educational mechanism and learning content, just because they fail to stimulate their interest and cultivate their attention and perseverance. Once they are willing to work hard, they will achieve great success in a short time.
(See CPO hotline "Guangming" for details) There are two conditions that restrict the development of ability: quality; Environment, education and practical activities. A quality is some anatomical and physiological characteristics that organisms are born with, especially the nervous system (mainly the brain).