1. Cells are the basic units of all living things, including human beings. The meaning of this basic unit includes two aspects: structure and function.
2. Cell biology is a subject that studies the growth, movement, inheritance, variation, differentiation, aging and death of objects at the cellular level.
3. Medical Cell Biology The study or discipline of cell biology with human body or medicine as the object.
4. Prokaryotes are cells that make up prokaryotes. The main feature of these cells is that they have not differentiated into membrane-based organelles and nuclear membranes with special structures and functions, and their genetic information is small, so their evolutionary status is low.
5. Eukaryotic cells refer to cells containing eukaryotic cells (nuclei surrounded by nuclear membranes), which are mainly manifested as cell membranes, developed endometrial systems and cytoskeleton systems.
6. Biological macromolecules, also known as multimers, are composed of many small monomers connected by valence bonds, with relatively large molecular weight, including protein, nucleic acids and polysaccharides.
7. A peptide whose polypeptide chain consists of multiple amino acids through peptide bonds is called a polypeptide chain.
8. Cell protein group takes all protein produced by gene activity and expression in a cell as a whole, and studies the species, quantity, structure and functional state of all protein in a cell at different stages of individual development under normal or abnormal conditions, thus clarifying the function of genes.
9. Nucleosomes Prokaryotes have neither nuclear membrane nor nucleoli, and the nuclear region where DNA is located in the center of the cell is called nucleosomes.
10. Plasmids In addition to genomic DNA, many bacteria also have small double-stranded circular DNA molecules called plasmids.
1 1. Cell membrane, also known as plasma membrane, refers to the biofilm wrapped in the outermost layer of cells, which is composed of lipids, protein and sugars.
12. biofilm People refer to biofilm and various module structures in cells as biofilm.
13. Under the electron microscope, the biofilm of unit membrane presents a relatively consistent three-layer structure, that is, the middle layer with low electron density is sandwiched between the inner layer and the outer layer with high electron density.
14. Liposomes Liposomes are self-sealing and stable lipid bilayers formed by lipid molecules in water phase.
15. cell coat The cell coat is a branched or unbranched oligosaccharide chain. Glycoproteins and glycolipids in the cell membrane protrude from the outer surface of the cell, and its protein and lipid parts participate in the construction of the cell membrane itself.
16. Cell surface, cell envelope, cytosol inside cells, various cell connection structures and some specialized structures of cell membrane are collectively called cell surface.
17. Endometrial system refers to organelles composed of membranes related to the internal structure, function and occurrence of eukaryotic cells.
18. Primary lysosomes are called primary lysosomes, which only contain hydrolases and have no substrate.
19. Secondary lysosomes The lysosomes after the primary lysosomes combine with substrates are called secondary lysosomes.
20. When the lysosome is swallowed by the final residue, the activity of hydrolase decreases, leaving some undigested and decomposed substances, forming residues with high electron density and dark color under electron microscope. At this time, lysosomes are called residues.
2 1. Nucleosomes Some peroxisomes have regular crystal structure and high electron density, which are called nucleosomes, and their essence is the crystallization of urate oxidase.
22. Microsomes are closed vesicles composed of endoplasmic reticulum fragments obtained by sucrose density gradient centrifugation.
23. Mitochondria are the main sites for biological oxidation and energy conversion of cells. It is called an energy converter, and 80% of the energy needed for cell life activities is provided by mitochondria, so mitochondria are compared to the "power factory" of cells.
24. The basic particle, also known as ATP synthase complex, is the site of ATP production, which is divided into three parts: the head, which protrudes from the lumen, has ATPase activity and can catalyze ADP phosphorylation to generate ATP; A handle connecting the head and the base; Basement, embedded in intima.
25. The part of the inner space of the crista that protrudes inward from the outer cavity of the mitochondria due to the crista protruding into the inner cavity is called the inner space of the crista.
26. Intercristal space The part between mitochondrial ridges is called cristal space.
27. Matrix-targeting sequence (WTS), also known as targeting peptide, is an amino acid sequence imported into mitochondria by protein at its N-terminal, which can be recognized and bound by the receptor on the mitochondrial membrane, thus guiding the transport of protein.
28. Ribosome is a non-membrane organelle composed of rRNA and protein, which is the site of intracellular protein synthesis.
29. In protein synthesis of multi-ribosomes, multiple ribosomes are combined with 65,438+0 mRNA molecules and arranged in a string to form a functional unit synthesized by protein, which is called multi-ribosomes.
30. cytoskeleton is a complex cellular grid system composed of protein components, including microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments.
3 1. microtubule organizing center (MTOC) includes centrosome, matrix and centromere, which provide the core for microtubule assembly and play an important role in microtubule assembly.
32. Some microtubules in dynamic microtubule cells exist for a short time and are rapidly assembled and disassembled. These microtubules are called dynamic microtubules, such as spindles.
33. Chromatin is a substance in the nucleus that can be colored by basic dyes, and it is also a carrier of genetic information.
34. Chromosome When a cell enters mitosis, the stretched and diffused filamentous chromatin is highly folded, curled and concentrated into a strip or rod with a special shape, which is called a chromosome.
35. Core-pore complex is not a simple pore, but a complex disk structure system. Each compound consists of a string of large protein particles arranged in an octagon with a water-containing channel in the center.
36. Nucleosome is the basic unit structure of chromatin. Each nucleosome consists of five histones and about 200bp of DNA, in which two molecules, H2A, H2B, H3 and H4, form octamers to form core particles. The left hand of the DNA molecule is spirally wound around the surface of the core particle, and each turn is about 80bp, *** 1.75 turns, which is about 146bp. There is a 60bp connecting DNA between adjacent core particles, and H 1 is located at the junction of DNA entering and leaving the core particles, and its function is related to chromatin concentration, forming a diameter of 165438+.
37. Euchromatin refers to chromosomes with low compression degree of chromatin fibers in interphase nuclei, which are in an extended state and are lighter in color when dyed with basic dyes.
38. Heterochromatin refers to chromatin components with high degree of chromatin fiber compression and condensed state in interphase nuclei, as well as components with deep alkaline dyes, including structural and facultative heterochromatin.
Telomeres are specialized sites at the ends of chromosomes, which can maintain the structural stability of chromosomes. Telomere DNA is a highly repetitive DNA sequence rich in GC.
40. The nucleolar organizer region (NOR) is located in the secondary scars of some chromosomes and has the function of associating nucleoli, which is called the nucleolar organizer region, that is, NOR.
4 1. Karyotype According to the relative size of chromosomes, the position of colored grains, the length of arms, the secondary constriction, the presence or absence of satellites and even the banding pattern, a complete set of chromosomes in a biological cell are paired according to homologous chromosomes and arranged in turn, which constitutes the karyotype of this individual.
42. Nuclear skeleton, also known as nuclear matrix, is a reticular system and homogeneous substance in interphase nuclei except chromatin and nucleoli. Its basic morphology is similar to the cytoskeleton in cytoplasm, and it has certain connection in structure, so it is also called nuclear skeleton. It is related to DNA replication and chromosome construction. The nuclear skeleton is composed of 3 ~ 30μ m protein fibers and some granular structures, with protein as the main component and a small amount of RNA and DNA. Nuclear matrix may be involved in the packaging and construction of chromosomal DNA, DNA replication, gene expression and a series of biological activities in the nucleus.
43. extracellular matrix (ECM) is a fibrous reticular substance composed of biological macromolecules synthesized and secreted by cells in the process of matrix development, which is distributed between cells and tissues, around cells or forms the basement membrane of epithelial cells, connecting cells with cells or cells with basement membrane to form tissues and organs, making them an organic whole. It provides a suitable place for the survival and activities of cells, and influences the morphology, metabolism, function, migration, proliferation and differentiation of cells through signal transduction system.
44. Collagen is the most abundant protein in animals, accounting for more than 30% of the total in protein. It is distributed in various organs and tissues in the body and is a framework structure in extracellular matrix. It can be synthesized and secreted by fibroblasts, chondrocytes, osteoblasts and some epithelial cells.
45. Procollagen refers to a triple helix collagen molecule with a propeptide.
46. Fibronectin (fn) is a large glycoprotein, which exists in all vertebrates. It exists in plasma and various body fluids in soluble form, and in extracellular matrix and cell surface in insoluble form, which can connect cells with extracellular matrix.
47. Laminin is a large glycoprotein, which forms basement membrane with type IV collagen and is the earliest extracellular matrix component in embryonic development.
48. Glycosaminoglycans (GAC) are unbranched long-chain polysaccharides composed of repeated Tang Di units. The disaccharide unit is usually composed of hexosamine and uronic acid, but the uronic acid in keratin sulfate is replaced by galactose.
49. Proteoglycan is a valence combination of aminopolysaccharide (except hyaluronic acid) and linear polypeptide, which can form hydrocolloids.
50. Adherence-dependent normal eukaryotic cells, except mature blood cells, mostly need to adhere to extracellular matrix to inhibit apoptosis and survive, which is called adherence-dependent.
5 1. basement membrane is a soft and specialized extracellular matrix under epithelial cells, and also exists around muscle, fat and nerve cells. It not only plays the role of protection and filtration, but also determines the polarity of cells and affects their metabolism, survival, migration, proliferation and differentiation.
52. The passive transportation of substances along the concentration gradient, from high concentration to low concentration, does not consume energy.
53. Simple diffusion transports substances from high concentration to low concentration without the help of membrane transporters and energy consumption.
54. Facilitated diffusion is a mode of substance transport, which promotes concentration through conformational changes of carrier proteins on cell membranes.
55. Coupled transporters transport a solute molecule at the same time or later.
56. Active transport is an inverse concentration gradient, from low concentration to high concentration, which consumes energy.
57. After synthesis, secreted proteins in the secretory constitutive pathway are immediately packaged into secretory vesicles of Golgi complex, and then quickly taken to the cell membrane for excretion.
58. Secretory protein or small molecules secreted by regulated secretory pathways are synthesized and stored in secretory vesicles. Only when stimulated by extracellular signals, secretory vesicles will move to the cell membrane and expel the substances in secretory vesicles.
59. The signal peptide is a continuous amino acid sequence located on the protein, and generally has 15~60 residues. Protein was excised after being guided to the destination.
60. Signal patch is a three-dimensional structure, which is a patch area formed by amino acid sequences located in different parts of protein after the polypeptide chain is folded.
6 1. signal recognition particle, SRP) is a 1 1S ribosomal protein, which consists of six polypeptide subunits and 1 7SrRNA molecules. It can not only recognize specific signal peptides, but also bind to ribosome A site.
62. Cell communication means that in the cellular society of multicellular organisms, cells or cells send and receive information with high precision and high efficiency, which causes rapid cellular physiological response or gene activity through amplification, and then a series of cellular physiological activities coordinate the activities of various organizations, making them a unified whole of life and making comprehensive responses to the changing external environment.
63. Signal transduction refers to the process that extracellular factors combine with receptors (membrane receptors or nuclear receptors), causing a series of biochemical reactions and protein interactions in cells until the genes needed for cell physiological reactions begin to express and form various biological effects.
64. Signal molecules refer to some chemical molecules in organisms, that is, non-nutritive substances, non-energy substances and structural substances, which are not enzymes. It is mainly used to transmit information between cells, such as hormones, neurotransmitters and growth factors. Their only function is to combine with cell receptors and transmit cell information.
65. Receptors refer to any biological macromolecules that can bind to hormones, neurotransmitters, drugs or intracellular signal molecules and cause changes in cell function, usually referring to protein located on the surface of cell membrane or bound to intracellular signal molecules.
66. The plasma membrane receptor with ion channel function is called ion channel receptor.
67. After the ligand of G-protein-linked receptor binds to the receptor, the adjacent G-protein is activated, and the activated G-protein can activate or inhibit an enzyme that produces a specific second messenger to activate ion channels, thus leading to the change of membrane potential. Because the signal transduction involved in this receptor is coupled with GTP binding regulatory protein, it is called G protein-coupled receptor. G protein-coupled receptor is the largest cell surface receptor.
68. Enzyme-linked receptor, a receptor protein, is both a receptor and an enzyme. Once activated by ligand, it has both enzymatic activity and signal amplification, also known as catalytic receptor. Enzyme-linked receptor is also a transmembrane protein, and the domain in the cell often has certain enzyme activity, so it is called enzyme-linked receptor. According to whether the intracellular domain of the receptor has enzyme activity, this kind of receptor can be divided into two types: enzyme-linked receptor lacking intracellular catalytic activity and receptor with intracellular catalytic activity.
69. Signal cascade is the process of amplifying signals step by step from the reception of external signals by cell surface receptors to the final comprehensive response, which is called signal cascade amplification reaction. Each member of the secondary cascade reaction is called a cascade, which is mainly composed of phosphorylase and dephosphorylation enzyme.
70. The cell surface receptor of the second messenger receives extracellular signals and then converts them into intracellular signals, which is called the second messenger. There are five most important second messengers in cells: cAMP, cGMP, 1, 2- diacylglycerol, 1, 4,5-inositol triphosphate, Ca2+ and so on.
Protein of 7 1.GTP binding protein (G protein) binding to GTP or GDP is also called guanylic acid binding regulatory protein. In terms of composition, there are monomer G protein (one polypeptide chain) and multi-subunit G protein (composed of multiple polypeptide chains). G protein is involved in various life activities of cells, such as cell communication, the combination of ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum, vesicle transport, protein synthesis and so on.
72. Adenylate cyclase (AC) is a membrane integration protein, and its N-terminal and C-terminal face cytoplasm. Adenylate cyclase has two catalytic domains and two membrane integration regions on the cytoplasmic surface of membrane, and each membrane integration region has six transmembrane A helices. Six adenylate cyclase isomers were found in mammals. Adenylate cyclase is an effector in G protein coupling system, because it can convert ATP into cAMP and cause cell signal response.
73. Calmodulin is a cytoplasmic protein in eukaryotic cells, which has two Ca2+ domains at both ends, and each domain can bind a Ca2+. Such a calmodulin can bind four Ca2+, and the configuration of calmodulin binding Ca2+ is quite stable. In unstimulated cells, the binding affinity of calmodulin to Ca2+ is very low. If the intracellular Ca2+ concentration increases due to stimulation, Ca2+ will combine with calmodulin to form Ca2+- calmodulin complex, which will change the configuration of calmodulin and enhance the affinity of calmodulin to various effectors.
74. The SH domain of SH structural base is the abbreviation of "Src homologous domain" (Src is an oncogene, originally found in Routh sarcoma virus). This domain can be closely combined with the phosphorylated residue of receptor tyrosine kinase to form a multi-protein complex for signal transduction.
75.Ros protein) Ras is the abbreviation of mouse sarcoma. Ras protein is the expression product of proto-oncogene c-ras, which belongs to monomer GTP binding protein and has weak GTP enzyme activity.
76.Grb2 protein (growth factor receptor binding protein 2) GRB2 is growth factor receptor binding protein 2, also known as Ash protein. This protein is involved in downstream regulation after activation of various receptors in cells. It can directly bind with tyrosine phosphorylated by activated epidermal growth factor receptor, participate in signal transduction of EGF receptor medium, and indirectly participate in signal transduction mediated by insulin receptor by binding with tyrosine phosphorylated by Shc. Grb2 protein contains one SH2 domain and two SH3 domains, belonging to SH protein.
77.Sos protein is the product of the gene sos encoding guanosine releasing protein (sos is the abbreviation of son of sevenless). The role of Sos protein in Ras signal transduction pathway is to promote Ras to release GDP and combine with GTP to change Ras protein from inactive state to activated state, so Sos protein is Ras activated protein. Sos protein does not contain SH domain and does not belong to SH protein.
78. Signal divergence means that the same signal propagates through several different signal pathways in the cell after interacting with the receptor, the most typical being the signal transduction of receptor tyrosine kinase.
Crosstalk refers to the interaction between different signal transmission paths, commonly known as "interaction".
80. Receptor Passivation The loss of receptor sensitivity to signal molecules is called receptor passivation, which is generally passivated by modifying the receptor. For example, after phosphorylation of serine and threonine residues, renal hormone receptors lose their signal transduction to adrenaline. It can be divided into homologous passivation and heterogeneous passivation.
8 1. receptor down-regulation regulates signal transduction by reducing the number of receptors in plasma membrane through endocytosis, which is called receptor down-regulation.
Autotrophic organisms can convert inorganic substances into organic substances for their own use through photosynthesis, including plants containing chlorophyll and some bacteria with photosynthesis.
83. In cell respiration, with the participation of O2, specific organelles in cells decompose various macromolecules to produce CO2, and at the same time store the energy released by catabolism in ATP, which is called cell oxidation.
84. Oxidative phosphorylation releases energy from high-energy substrate water and directly transfers high-energy phosphate bonds from substrate to ATP, which is phosphorylated into ATP.
85. The electron transfer respiratory chains are arranged in an orderly manner in the intima as an interrelated chain-like enzyme system to transfer electrons, which can reversibly receive and release H+ and electrons.
86.ATP synthase particles are located on the inner membrane of mitochondria, which are composed of head, stalk and substrate, and are the key parts of ATP production, so they are called ATP synthase.
87. Cytochalasin, a metabolite (alkaloid) produced by fungi, can cut microfilament and bind to the+end of microfilament, inhibiting actin polymerization, but has no effect on depolymerization.
88. phalloidin is a bicyclic rod-shaped peptide alkaloid produced by Agaricus bisporus, which has strong affinity with microfilaments, stabilizes actin fibers and inhibits depolymerization, and only binds to F- actin, but not to G- actin.
89. Myosin is a dynamic protein related to microfilament movement, which is divided into head, neck and tail. The head can combine actin and ATP.
90. kinesin is a dynamic protein related to microfilament movement, which is divided into head, neck and tail. The head is the active part that generates force, and the tail can be combined with the membrane bubble.
9 1. The dynamic structure of mitotic apparatus in the metaphase of mitosis consists of spindle and star. Among them, the star consists of three kinds of microtubules; Dynamic microtubules, interelectrode microtubules and star microtubules.
92. Transcription is a process of synthesizing mRNA in the nucleus with DNA as a template, which is called transcription.
93. The process of transferring 93.mRNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and synthesizing protein on ribosomes is called translation.
94. Transposons, that is, moving genes, refer to genes that can move from one position of chromosomes to another or between different chromosomes.
95. Overlapping genes refer to the phenomenon that the nucleotide sequences of two genes overlap each other in the same DNA sequence.
96. Gene expression The process that genetic information composed of four different bases in DNA molecules is "copied" to mRNA by turning green, and then the mRNA is translated into a specific protein amino acid sequence by genetic code is called gene expression.
97. Genetic code After the genetic information is transcribed from DNA to mRNA through base complementation, those three adjacent nucleotides on the mRNA molecule can synthesize an amino acid or a termination signal, which is called a codon. All codons are collectively called genetic code.
98. Protoplast consists of six protein-binding DNA single strands and primer enzymes, which can identify the origin of DNA replication.
99.DNA replicon refers to a ribosome-sized complex composed of two sets of DNA polymerase III holoenzyme molecules, initiators and helicase, which was formed near replication fork during DNA replication.
100. the length of transcription) DNA chain from promoter to terminator is called a transcription unit, that is, transcription.
10 1. Only one of the two strands of template chain DNA can be used as a template, and this chain is called template chain. Also known as sense chain.
102. The transcription of a promoter starts from a specific site on the DNA template, which is also the site where RNA polymerase binds, and is called a promoter.
103. The central rule refers to the flow direction of genetic information in cells. Genetic information is transcribed from DNA into RNA and finally flows to protein. It also includes the way that mRNA forms DNA through reverse transcriptase.
104. Cell proliferation is a process in which cells grow and divide to obtain daughter cells with the same genetic characteristics as the mother cells, and the number of cells increases exponentially.
105. The interval between cell generation cycle and the end of parent cell division and offspring cell division.
106. The restriction point (R point) G 1 phase is a special regulation point in the cell cycle, which plays a "valve" role in controlling the cell proliferation cycle.
107. Mitogenic factor (MPF) exists in the cytoplasm of M-phase, which is composed of protein kinase and cyclin. It is necessary to regulate the entry and exit of cells in M-phase, and regulates the cell cycle by promoting the phosphorylation of target proteins.
108. In the prophase of mitotic spindle, centriole moves to two layers of cells, and microtubules accelerate polymerization to form spindle-like structure, which is called spindle.
109. Cyclin is a kind of protein that appears or disappears periodically with the change of cell cycle. It can activate CDK at different stages, thus regulating the cell cycle.
1 10. cell division cycle (cdc) is related to the operation and regulation of cell cycle, and its products regulate the process of cell cycle.
1 1 1. Proto-oncogene has a gene similar to viral oncogene in the genome of normal cells, and the product is very important for the proliferation of normal cells. Mutation into oncogene will lead to cell growth out of control.
1 12. Tumor suppressor oncogenes have a class of genes that can inhibit the malignant proliferation of normal cells, and their products can inhibit the growth and division of cells.
1 13. Synapsis in the diploid stage of meiosis 1, and homologous chromosomes are paired, which is called synapse.
1 14. Tetrad homologous chromosomes combine to form bivalents, and each bivalent consists of two homologous chromosomes. This bivalent has four chromatids, called tetrads.
1 15. Growth factor (GF) induces a series of physiological reactions by binding with membrane receptors, and regulates cell proliferation.
1 16. somatostatin is a regulatory factor that inhibits cell proliferation, some of which are soluble small proteins and some are glycoproteins.
1 17. At the end of mitosis and the beginning of cytokinesis, a large number of actin and myosin gather under the cell membrane to form contraction rings.
1 18. The cleavage groove contraction ring slides through the microfilament, and its diameter gradually decreases, which makes the cell membrane droop and produces cleavage groove perpendicular to the spindle axis.
1 19. The process of cell differentiation is called cell differentiation.
120. Cell determination Generally speaking, cells have been constrained to differentiate in a specific direction before recognizable morphological changes occur, which determines the future development fate. Therefore, the period from determining the direction of differentiation to the appearance of specific morphological characteristics is called the cell determination period.
12 1. Cell totipotency is the ability of a single cell to proliferate, differentiate and develop into a complete individual under certain conditions. Cells with this ability are called totipotent cells.
122. housekeeping gene is an indispensable gene to maintain the lowest function of cells, and generally only helps cells differentiate.
123. luxury genes refer to genes directly related to the special characteristics of various differentiated cells, and the absence of such genes has no direct impact on the survival of cells.
124. homeobox gene Any gene containing homeobox gene sequence is called homeobox gene.
125.DNA methylation refers to the phenomenon that cytidine and methyl on DNA molecules form cytosine, especially in CG sequences.
126. Cell induction means that some cells affect the morphology of neighboring cells and determine their differentiation direction.
127. Cell inhibition means that during embryonic development, differentiated cells are affected by inhibitory substances produced by neighboring cells, and their effects are opposite to induction.
128. Oncogenes are mutant forms of normal genes that control cell growth and division, and can cause normal cells to become cancerous.
129. Stem cells are primitive cells that still have the ability to proliferate and divide during differentiation, and can differentiate to produce more than one kind of "professional" cells. According to their localization and differentiation potential, they can be divided into embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are cells that have the potential to differentiate into any kind of body tissues and organs, such as cells in cell clusters in blastocysts; Adult stem cells are stem cells existing in various tissues and organs in mature individuals, which have the ability of self-renewal, but usually they can only differentiate into specialized cells in corresponding or adjacent tissues and organs.
130. Adult stem cells are immature cells with self-renewal ability in adult tissues, which can differentiate into one or more tissue cells. Such as hematopoietic stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells, neural stem cells, epidermal stem cells, intestinal stem cells and liver stem cells.
13 1. Transdifferentiation is a phenomenon that stem cells of one tissue type differentiate into cells of another tissue type under appropriate conditions.
132. Asymmetric division is abnormal cells produced when cells divide, such as two daughter cells, one is stem cells and the other is differentiated cells.
133. Transitional expanded cells are transitional cells between stem cells and differentiated cells. It divides quickly, and after several times of division, it produces differentiated cells, which can produce more differentiated cells through fewer stem cells.
134. Aging, also known as aging, usually refers to the irreversible phenomenon that after an organism matures under normal conditions, with the growth of age, its own function declines, its internal environment stability and stress ability decline, and its structure and components gradually degenerate and tend to die.
135. Free radicals refer to molecules or atomic groups with unpaired electrons in the outer orbit. It is a highly activated molecule, which can take away electrons from other substances, make them oxidized, and then have harmful biological effects on cells.