Zhu kezhen
Why there was no natural science in ancient China has attracted people's attention in the past two years. There is a lot of discussion not only in China.
In publishing, that is, people in Europe and America have also noticed this problem. Although everyone has different views, to sum up, most people think that China is ancient.
A generation did not produce natural science, not because China people were born without this ability, but because our historical environment was not suitable.
Therefore, in Science and Technology magazine, Mr. Chen Li's article "Psychological Analysis of Underdeveloped Science in China" concluded: "China Branch.
The backwardness of learning can be traced back to: (1) the pan-generative theory that personifies his thoughts; (2) There is no intuitive tool thinking method; (3) no.
Logical; (4) there is no division of labor; (5) Confusion between subjective and objective; (6) rational dishonesty and so on. But I'm serious.
Come out, it reflects the objective social organization. In a patriarchal society, there is only the concept of a patriarchal society. "
Last year, at the summer seminar of Zhejiang University, Mr. Qian Baoyan made the following statement in his speech on "Reasons for the Underdevelopment of Natural Sciences in China":
Science has always been advocated in the history of our country, but the reason why science is ignored is that China people attach too much importance to practicality. For example, the application of calendars has long been
Invent. I have long known that the earth is round. However, due to no longer continue to study its principle, so that natural science can not continue to develop, and foreign countries
People, on the other hand, pay attention to practicality and can keep learning. From useless to useful, natural science can develop greatly. Why is our nation also?
Pay attention to practicality? In fact, it is caused by geographical, social and cultural environment. China is a mainland culture, and most people mainly focus on agriculture, and only want to be self-sufficient.
A self-sufficient economy. "
Similarly, Dr. Joseph Needham of the United Kingdom, the Sino-British Science Cooperation Museum, 1933 held the 30th anniversary of the founding of the Chinese Science Society in Meitan.
In the speech of the National People's Congress, it is also believed that modern science cannot be produced in China, but is based on the same environment, namely geography, climate, economy and society.
Four kinds of resistance in the world. Geographically, China, as a mainland country, has been closed to the outside world and stuck to its laurels.
Marine culture is different. In terms of climate, it is also very continental, so it is prone to floods and droughts, and a large-scale irrigation system must be established.
Degree; And bureaucratic feudal forces can't be swept away. China's economy and society, since the Qin Dynasty, have remained in the stage of bureaucratic dictatorship.
For a long time, social production has made little progress, leading to the decline of the merchant class. There is no reason for the initial capitalism to let the middle class rise for no reason.
Exhibition. Modern science will come into being together with capitalism.
A few years before the Anti-Japanese War, Witt vogel, a German Jew, devoted a section to "Why didn't China?"
There is a natural science. "He began to ask a question. He said, "Semi-feudal Europe is not bigger than Emperor China in commercial scale.
China, even though its industrial production scale is often smaller than that of China, has made many scientific inventions and contributions. All this is obviously the beginning.
The various characteristics of capitalism in the Qing Dynasty were enthusiastically encouraged by the petty bourgeoisie to accumulate power. "karl berngardovich radek in China calendar.
"The Fundamental Problem of History" once pointed out that the social relations in western Europe before industrial revolution in europe were basically related to China.
Difference If you don't admit this view, the environment in China is the same as that before industrial revolution in europe, so why didn't it lead to science?
What about germination and scientific development? His answer to this question is: "In addition to history science, language science and philosophy, China only has
Astronomy and mathematics have made real scientific achievements. As a whole, it is related to the formation of industrial production.
However, science only stays at the level of collecting empirical rules. ..... Why China in mathematics and heaven is the Han Dynasty or before the Han Dynasty?
Reached a higher level in literature. It is assumed that the emergence of these sciences is based on various large-scale water conservancy control projects and water conservancy projects.
Social order needs; So this is the only time when these sciences were founded? "Then he said," China thinker.
Intelligence is not used in various industrial production problems that can form mechanical systems; Dealing with these problems is not fundamental.
Ben's urgent task, the basic information of this far east power, focuses on other topics, namely, agricultural order, and direct and
Various topics related to or conceptually reflecting the agricultural order. "He concluded:" They can't learn from it.
In the connection between Asian society and European society, why can't Asian society be semi-feudal in the process of disintegration as in medieval Europe?
The method and degree of socialism, promote large-scale industrial management. We only confirm the fact that this is an accurate natural science.
This stagnation is parallel to this industrial stagnation. ..... China's natural science department is so weak and developed, hmm.
Accidentally; But the inevitable result of those obstacles that hinder the development of natural science. "
The conclusions of the above four authors on this issue can be attributed to the fact that the old society in China was not suitable for natural science. Master of money,
Both Joseph Needham and Mr. vogel think that the system of agricultural society is in the way; Mr. Chen Li's opinion is due to the patriarchal society
Organization, two opinions are two into one. Because the patriarchal society can only be maintained and developed if agriculture is the core of the economy.
According to Professor Morigu of Kyoto University, the function of patriarchal society is: (1) offering sacrifices to ancestors. (2) At the time of the New Year Festival.
Family dinners, (3) bereavement of relatives, (4) the habit of not marrying the same family, and most importantly, (5) its economic function, that is, ancient times.
When the so-called "brothers are rich in housing, more money belongs to the family, and less money belongs to the family". (China
Social and Economic History, Zhonghua Book Company, 1936) Moritani said: "Many functions of the primitive surname society in China are in words.
Many of them are protected by law. A feature of China's social evolution appears here. "Farmers have moved to other places, and they can live in neighboring counties and townships.
People die of old age, so it is easy to maintain the patriarchal social system. Industry and commerce are gradually developed, the world is big, and families can be seen everywhere.
The system of patriarchal society is unsustainable. "Lushi Spring and Autumn Farming" makes this very clear: "The property of the people's peasants should be restored; Its production
Relocation; If you move again, you don't have to worry about death. ..... People give up this instead of things, then the production contract; Its production contract is light migration; Light migration,
Then the country suffers, all with lofty aspirations and ulterior motives. "When the people are ambitious without virtue, the patriarchal society will never last.
If we admit that China's ancient natural sciences were underdeveloped, it is because China's society and agriculture were powerful and its industry and commerce were underdeveloped.
Then the second question comes: Why has the agricultural society maintained this overwhelming force for so long in the history of China? Britain, England
Professor Lasky said: "Political philosophy must be based on historical philosophy. The rise and fall of a country and a nation in history, historians.
Each has his own point of view. All classes have their own reasons, which makes sense. Or think it is fate, or an irresistible force, such as Hegel.
That is, put forward such a view; Or think that due to the change of weather, such as tropical suitable for dictatorship, temperate suitable for democracy; Others regard history as a few great achievements.
The success or failure of a great man, a professional historian. ..... but the improvement of economic production mode is enough to affect all changes in history. "
(Ideal and Actual Country, English) Lasky added: "The fastest changing era in history is the transformation of economic production mode.
The greatest era; The era of stability in history is an era when the mode of economic production is relatively fixed. "He cited the works of the Renaissance.
The industrial revolution and several periods at the beginning of the 20th century, as the biggest changes in the mode of production in Europe, are also the most brilliant periods of thought. We learn from classics.
It is not accidental to study the rise of modern science in Europe from the perspective of economic production, and to understand the progress of European science in 16 and 17 centuries.
Things. Most people think that modern science originated from Galileo and Newton. Since 1492 Goren
After the discovery of the new continent, the industry and commerce in western Europe became very active. The navigation of ships in the ocean needs special engineering knowledge; Prosperous trade, gold
The market is insufficient, mining and metallurgy are developing rapidly, and there are many problems in the mining process that need to be solved urgently. By the end of 15, there were 16 in Europe.
This machine is used for mine drainage. With the development of navigation technology, telescopes and compasses are becoming more and more accurate. The determination of longitude and latitude requires astronomy.
Knowledge. About 1660, a group of scholars in Britain, driven by curiosity, came to discuss everything.
From the universe to insects and fish. This is the beginning of the Royal Society. The reason why the Royal Society was founded in the middle of17th century is uneven.
Of course. Because of the prosperity of wealthy businessmen and tycoons at that time, a leisure class often traveled, and their purpose was not to work hard.
Profit, but driven by intimacy. This is really the beginning of modern science.
We understand the relationship between modern science and social evolution, and then see if there is an era in our history that can reward the development of industry and commerce.
The rise of early capitalism enabled the middle class to rise and compete with the autocratic feudal forces, just like 16 and 17 century new Europe.
What about the struggle between the prosperous forces and feudal religions? Looking at the history of our country for two or three thousand years, it is only possible in a period from the Warring States to the middle of the Western Han Dynasty.
Sex; This period is also the most brilliant period in the history of China's thought and science. Ma Chengfeng said in "China's Economic History", "Inside
It was the economic development during the Warring States period, so the political organization and ideology were also very active and abnormal. In the cultural history of China, except
Apart from the spread of Europeanization in modern times, there is hardly an era. It can be compared with a hundred schools of thought contending during the Warring States period. "Zhang Yinlin
"China's Outline of History" also said: "Since the Spring and Autumn Period, transportation has become increasingly developed, commerce has progressed, and the merchant class has become increasingly powerful in society.
Although Confucian legalists advocated severe punishment and severe laws, after the unification of China in the Han Dynasty, on the one hand, the tolls of passes and bridges were cancelled, on the other hand, the passes and bridges were opened.
Let the mountains open, let the people plow, and give opportunities for industrial and commercial development. At this time of Niu Geng, under the laissez-faire and vigorous atmosphere of the government, it was gradually implemented.
Because of this, China's industrial and commercial circles have not surpassed it until Hai Recitation. "In the Han Dynasty, when Emperor Wenjing was the second emperor, businessmen had the greatest influence and were relatively rich at that time.
Businessmen are often big landlords, specializing in the interests of Sichuan and Ze and taking care of mountains and rivers. According to Chao Cuo, "clothes must be embroidered and food must be bright."
Meat, ... because of its palace thickness, traffic princes; Force the official position to benefit each other; Invite a thousand miles to swim, look across the canopy, take advantage of strength and fat, and drag the silk.
"Hanwu, who came to the empire after Wen Jing, is a man eager for success. In the second year after he ascended the throne, he sent Zhang Chun to the Western Regions. Jane Liu Yuan
During the sixteen years from 2000 to the first year of Yuanshou, he devoted himself to verbally attacking Xiongnu and went to the fort nine times. The number of prisoners exceeded150,000, and the Hexi Corridor was
Set up two counties of Jiuquan in Wuwei. From the fourth year of Yuanshou to the fifth year of Taichu, in the seventeenth year, South Vietnam, North Korea and Southwest China were taken as counties. Hanwu
Territorial expansion is unprecedented in time and scope. Compared with western Europe, it is just like Columbus discovered the new continent and opened up vast colonies.
Land so that industry and commerce can develop. According to Zhang Yin's Heng Yun: "After Zhang Qian made the Western Regions, he continued to be a hero of the county or a rogue of the city."
A new way out. "In theory, Wenjing's merchant power is so great that the continuation of Hanwu has expanded its territory and made industry and commerce more useful.
Land, then early capitalism should have emerged, and modern science should have seen the bud, but history tells us that the fact is not as good as it is.
What is the reason?
Geographical environment, if the western region is not desert, but fertile land, such as Ukraine or vast expanse in Europe.
The ocean is like the Atlantic Ocean, so the development in our history may be very different. But this speculation can't solve the problem being discussed at present.
Irrigation system and the establishment of absolute monarchy go hand in hand; But it is not an important factor in establishing an absolute monarchy. Since the Warring States Period
In the s, Wei Ximen Bao dug twelve canals, Han and Zheng dug diameter canals for Qin, and Shu repaired irrigation canals for the county, until Emperor Wu dug six canals in Guanzhong.
Canal, during which water conservancy has really developed greatly. Hegel, Engels, Marx and Madzar all advocated the unification of water conservancy projects.
System, established an authoritarian regime in China. Needham and Weill also hold this view. However, the factors of establishing the autocratic regime in Qin and Han dynasties are not only
To this end, Ma Chengfeng listed: (1) financial management and land tax collection; (2) Training and mobilization of the standing army; (3) All localities
The yamen for executing civil law and criminal law; (4) The examination and selection system of choosing the emperor as a foolish policy and the country as a wet nurse.
These four factors are more powerful than irrigation and water conservancy in establishing the autocratic regime in Qin and Han Dynasties.
But which force can most effectively establish imperial power, ruin the development of commerce and destroy the bud of modern science?
And then what? We must base ourselves on historical facts. During the Spring and Autumn Period, commerce was not developed, and the emperor didn't feel that merchants had caught it.
The threat of political power, so Zuo Zhuan has the saying that "things are suitable for agriculture and business is beneficial to work"; In Guoyu, there is a saying that "light customs and easy roads, trade and agriculture".
Language. At that time, the thickness of agriculture, industry and commerce was uneven. Zi Gong, a businessman in the Spring and Autumn Period, was a great disciple of Confucius in Taishigong's Biography of Huo Zhi.
He said, "Zigong is the city of Spinhou. Wherever he went, the monarch resisted him indiscriminately. Fu made Confucius famous in the world.
, ZiGong has also. This so-called harvest and benefit. "By the Warring States period, iron tools had been widely used in farming; There are many ways to fertilize.
Line, large-scale irrigation is also unified construction; Agricultural production has greatly increased, and business is also very active. And Qin from Vietnam.
After the commercial seedling, the discussion of emphasizing agriculture and restraining commerce, taking agriculture as the foundation and taking commerce as the end prevailed. In the early Han Dynasty, industry and commerce developed greatly. Fushangzhi
Food, clothing, housing and transportation are for the princes; Adopt a hero, the owner of power. At that time, Jia Yi, Dong Zhongshu and other intellectuals advocated strictness.
Cut off businessmen. However, in the world of culture and scenery, commercial power is still growing and increasing. So Chao Cuo sighed.
Tao: "the law is cheap for businessmen, and businessmen are rich." The law is the treasure of farmers, and farmers are already very poor. " The expansion of Hanwu territory could have achieved industry and commerce.
Industry is more prosperous; But on the contrary, commerce declined in the Hanwu era. This is because according to the policy of emphasizing agriculture and restraining business. Emperor Wu is very strict.
The introduction of the three major systems has brought the merchant system to the brink of bankruptcy. The first kind is that businessmen add up and listen to people say goodbye, which began in the third year of Yuanshou. Qiu Mingjun, "the official of the world"
Outline "Volume 4 says:" If the ancients closed the market and covered their patents, they would levy taxes on them, instead of concealing their accumulation, they would take them. Emperor yuan
It's not good to be a walker's car and a common people's car for five years. All people are not collectors or three old knights. If they are good, they are all.
Do the math. Merchants will double it, and those with cylinders over 50 feet will count. It's half stupid to hide and sue. Hiding, the defendant said he was pardoned. "Self-incrimination leads to execution.
After the trip, it is said that businessmen above middle class are likely to go bankrupt. The second is that businessmen are not allowed to be famous. Dajia, a wealthy businessman in the early Han Dynasty, was mostly a big landlord, or
In rural investment, Shu Wanjia stipulates that businessmen are not allowed to buy real estate if they name farmland; Businessmen are insulated from big landlords, while commercial capital is
Dry up. The third is to nationalize Salt and Iron, the largest private enterprise at that time. This is also the third year of Yuanshou, and the 28th day of Salt Palace.
County, tin pot rice forty counties: private cast iron and salt escaped people, titanium left toe, not included in their utensils. According to historical records and biographies of Huo Zhi, Qin and Han Dynasties
As far as occupation is concerned, most millionaires at the turn of the century are mining and metallurgy. Let's list some rich people from Huo Zhi. A meal starts with salt.
Home; Guo Zongfu smelting iron, and Wang Wax; The widow of Bashu passed on the Dan spot in Qing Dynasty, and for several generations, Qin Shihuang built the Qing Dynasty; Shu Zhuo's iron smelting
Rich, up to a thousand people, Tianchi's pleasure in finding money means people. In addition, Cheng Zheng, Wankong family and Cao Taijia made a fortune by smelting iron. Baiweigui
Take a good look at the changes of time, such as speculators today, manipulating the market. Xuanzang stone man became rich by hoarding, which is now called hoarding. In addition, Qi Shi
History became rich by transportation, and Wushiluo became rich by animal husbandry. Assuming that Sima Qian's statistics are reliable, then he became rich by salt and iron at that time.
Of the total number of rich people, eleven should account for seven. Since salt and iron are nationalized, this property will be confiscated. From what has been described above
In fact, from the Spring and Autumn Period to the third year of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty, China's commerce has a thriving trend, and it reached the heyday of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty.
Continue to develop in order to reach the early stage of capitalism in western countries, but it was interrupted by the economic policy of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty, which emphasized agriculture and suppressed commerce.
From the Warring States to the early Han Dynasty, on the one hand, it was a period of industrial and commercial development, on the other hand, it was also the most brilliant period of China Thought. Zhuzibai
At this time, all kinds of family theories appeared, just like Greece in 600-200 BC. The Status of China Thought in the Warring States Period
Sudden liberation also has its social background. Zhang Yinlin said: "In the early feudal era, nobles not only owned political power and land, but also
And proprietary knowledge. Leisure and education are their exclusive. In the evolution of feudal system, the descendants of nobles gradually had civilians who surrendered their power.
Yes, knowledge permeates people. "(Chapter 6 of China's Outline of History) Ma Chengfeng also said:" Before the Warring States Period, knowledge was monopolized by nobles.
Yes, the living conditions of nobles and serfs are absolutely different. During the Warring States period, because of the change of class relations, it used to belong to Guan.
When the fetters are broken, it is possible for civilians to seek knowledge. "("China Ancient Economic History ",Volume I, 200 pages)
6 1 page] Because the opportunity to learn knowledge has been promoted from the upper class to the middle class, and even to the lower class, my mind has been liberated at once, at once.
However, it was colorful and the theory was merged for a while. But why can't scientific thought develop in this era of ideological emancipation? world view
Sensually, does China pay more attention to the analysis of natural things than the Greeks? For this, Zhang Yinlin also has a good answer. On China and the West
Cultural Differences (No.1 1 Thought and Times), he said: "A fundamental difference between Chinese and Western cultures is that China's.
China people are much more interested in practical activities than in pure activities. Aristotle's ethics and China's
It is extremely interesting to compare "university" with "golden mean". Aristotle believes that the best activity is the truth of inaction.
Watch and play. A perfect life is a life of doing nothing and playing with the truth. The so-called "university" ends with perfection and gentleman.
Benevolence, the minister stops at respect, the son stops at filial piety, the father stops at kindness, and making friends with Chinese people stops at faith. Isn't this difference obvious enough? China
People regard virtue as lewdness, but they don't love wisdom or heaven. Westerners say they love wisdom and heaven, but never say that virtue is like lewdness, "Mr. Lin Yin pointed out."
It is very important to point out the differences between Chinese and western cultural value consciousness. Mr Lin Yin is very modest. He said, "I don't know any facts.
To explain this difference in value consciousness. "According to the author, this is also because China society has always been centered on agriculture.
Greek society once experienced nomadic times. She is a peninsula, with countless small islands along the coast, and the sea next to it is an inland sea, not a sea.
It is convenient to communicate with foreign countries, so the business developed well from the beginning. We are a mainland country, with few coastal areas north of the Yangtze River.
When an island enters the vast sea, it has no home. Agriculture has been the main economic production since Yin Ruins. In the history of China, it is not.
Know how to use cheese. There are only dragons, phoenixes, cows and turtles among the stars in the sky, and there are no major industries in the animal husbandry era, such as goats or sheep. Ancient China
It is doubtful whether it has passed through an animal husbandry era. Even if it has passed, it will be very long or very short. From Shang dynasty to early Han dynasty, after
For at least 1200 years, the society with agricultural economy as its core has naturally bound people's thoughts, habits and personalities very strongly.
In a society centered on agriculture, people's personality advantages are simplicity, stability, peace and perseverance; Disadvantages are ignorance, selfishness and lack of adventurous spirit.
And can't cooperate. Until now, our nation still embodies this advantage and disadvantage. "Lu Chunqiu Farming" says: "There was a sage king in ancient times.
The reason why people who guide the people should serve agriculture first; People and farmers are not only for the sake of the right time, the right place and the right people, but also for their aspirations. People and farmers are simple, simple and easy to use, and easy to use is the border.
Ann, your majesty. People and farmers are more important. If they are more important, they will be less selfish. If they are less selfish, they will formulate public laws and devote themselves wholeheartedly. ..... It is wisdom for people to give up this instead of things; okay
Wisdom is more work; What is more fraudulent is the clever method, right and wrong, right and wrong. "Ancient emperors used this theory to advocate emphasizing agriculture and restraining commerce. Agricultural society
The society is strong, the heart of knowledge cannot be developed, and scientific ideas cannot be developed.
According to the above, the spirit of knowledge in ancient Greece was so abundant, why did Greece only develop science to a certain stage, but in modern times?
Science could not be realized in the end, and the important factor was the prevalence of slavery in Greece. So a group of philosophers in ancient Greece, such as
Pythagoras, who invented geometry, Park Chung-su, Socrates and Plato, who advocated atomism, although they had leisure to meditate.
Professor Ravi of Britain said that lofty ideals are enough for experiments, but modern science cannot be empty-handed. "There is a leisurely walk."
Ideological efforts can be developed theoretically; But the leisure class is unwilling to do it. The slave class can do practical work, but
I dare not reward them for understanding profound theories, because Egypt, Greece and Rome have limited contributions to science, which is why they are in several countries.
Social stratum structure. "Therefore, according to the great philosopher Aristotle, productive workers do not have civil rights. Greek social groups
Weave into a hierarchy. Greek slaves, Greek machines. As long as the price of slaves is cheap, there is no need to find a substitute. Viewed from the opposite angle
The social situation in our country is similar to that in Greece. Mencius said that those who work hard serve others, and those who work hard serve others. Scholar-officials are laborers, but farmers.
A coolie is a laborer. So far, such hierarchical organizations still exist, and the long-sleeved classes and agricultural college students still think that they can do manual work.
Shamefully, if this concept is not changed, it is almost impossible to develop natural science in China. In the final analysis, China's rural social system and feudal thought.
Want to, make the ancient China can't produce natural science. And this kind of organization, this kind of thought, is still mostly left over today. Once people are educated,
Education, acting like a scholar-bureaucrat class, refused to start work again. The subjects studied at school only ask whether the way out is good, whether the treatment is rich or not, and the calibration is insufficient.
What are the basic discipline training and personal interests? The value of interest is put above the value of right and wrong, and science is generally advocated in society.
People just want the application of science. No wonder Witt vogel said, "In the process of disintegration, China, the upper class.
Level and the highest official hall, but also interested in natural science, to be rewarded. But the meaning they embrace is completely different from that of the west.
This is true, and no one can deny it. "According to" Western Learning Spreading to the East ",it is said that in the six years of Tongzhi, Zeng Gong's party initially decided to twist the army.
Back in Shanghai, I went to Nanjing as the governor of the two rivers, and I was very concerned about the Jiangnan factory he personally created. When Zheng Wen saw it, he was very happy and tolerant.
Zheng Wen praised him for persuading him to set up an ordnance school so that China would not need to use foreign machines and engineers in the future. Cong zengwen
Up to now, science has been advocated for nearly 80 years, but there are still people who advocate "western learning for use, middle school for the body" or similar fallacies. Hope yuan
The discovery of bullets can break the dreams of these people and make China scientists brilliant.
(Excerpted from Zhu Kezhen Luwen, Zhejiang Literature and Art Publishing House)