The Silk Road and Sino-Western Trade The Silk Road was a commercial thoroughfare across Asia and Europe. It was also a road for political, economic, and cultural exchanges between Eastern and Western countries. The most prominent one was the communication of international trade at that time. "Book of the Later Han Dynasty: Biography of the Western Regions" says: "The travels of messengers are constantly coming and going; the merchants and merchants, and the daily payment is under the fortress." This reflects the continuous exchange of envoys and the continuous travel of merchants. Among the commodities on the Silk Road, Chinese silk is the main commodity. China is the first country in the world to raise silkworms, reel and weave silk. During the Yin and Zhou dynasties, the working people had already woven gorgeous dark floral silk and colorful embroidery. Later, Luosha and brocade were invented. Silk manufacturing technology improved greatly during the Han Dynasty, as evidenced by the exquisite silk fabrics preserved in the Mawangdui Han Tomb in Changsha. The export of Chinese silk began around the Warring States Period. In the 4th century BC, the Greeks called China the Silk Country, indicating that Asian merchants had shipped silk to Europe. From the Western Han Dynasty to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Chinese silk was shipped to the West in large quantities. In order to ensure economic exchanges, the Han Dynasty also took necessary political measures, sending envoys and setting up post offices to keep trade routes open.
my country's silk was regarded as a treasure in ancient Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. After the Han Dynasty passed through the Western Regions, silk was widely used in clothing throughout Central and West Asia. This was especially true of the Parthian, Seleucid and Ptolemaic princes and concubines. Temples all over the country also use silk extensively for decoration. In Europe during the Roman Empire, Chinese silk was widely used. In the city of Rome, the center of Western Rome, and Constantinople, the center of Eastern Rome, everyone from the emperor, senators and noble families were proud to wear Chinese silk. The vestments, vestments, curtains, and altar decorations of Christian churches are all made of silk. State officials wore special forms of silk robes, while secular wealthy people generally wore ordinary silk robes. A Roman writer in the 3rd century AD said: Silk people made precious floral silk. Its color was as beautiful as wild flowers and its material was as fine as spider silk.
In addition to exporting large amounts of silk, China also exported ironware, nickel, precious metals, copperware, lacquerware, apricots and sugar cane to Central Asia, West Asia and Rome. China imports woolen fabrics, glass, gems, agate, spices and cosmetics from the west of Central Asia. Especially important is the blood horse and Tianma imported from Dawan; grapes, alfalfa, broad beans, pomegranates, saffron, sesame, etc. from Central Asian countries. Plants such as carrots and cucumbers were introduced to China. Also introduced to China from the Western Regions and Iran were musical instruments such as the harp, pipa, and 筚篥, as well as techniques such as painting, sculpture, and pattern design. Parthian and Roman woolen fabrics and glass also came from the east. There were more than ten trade envoys traveling westward from Dawan every year. They went to Sogdia, Bactria, India and Parthia, and even went further west.
The sales of Chinese silk and other countries’ commodities and the resulting huge profits caused countries in Central Asia, West Asia, North Africa and Southern Europe to launch long-term struggles to control trade routes and monopolize trade. Central Asia is the hub of the Silk Road, and the main middlemen in Central Asia are the Sogdians. Sogdia has Malakanda (today's Samarkand) as its capital, also known as Kangju in Chinese historical records. They have always been famous for their international trade and have made huge profits in the transit business. However, Sogdia was a small and weak country and could not control and monopolize the Silk Road. After the division of Alexander's empire, and until the independence of Bactria and Parthia, the Silk Road was in the hands of the Seleucid dynasty. This monopoly income played an important role in Seleucid's finances and economy. After Parthian independence, they controlled Central Asia and West Asia and monopolized the transit trade on the Silk Road. At this time, Seleucus was in a corner and lost its international trade hegemony. Anxi made huge profits from transit trade and export trade. According to the "Book of the Later Han Dynasty: Biography of the Western Regions", the profits reached ten times. After the fall of the Parthians, the Sassanids controlled the international trade on the Silk Road, preventing Sogdian merchants from transshipping silk and preventing Roman merchants from selling silk in an attempt to monopolize patents. However, Eastern goods still flowed to Rome. The Romans imported large quantities of goods from India, China and West Asia every year. These items were sold in Rome for 100 times more expensive than in India. The price of silk is actually worth its weight in gold. This shows that merchants in international trade at that time could make huge profits from it.
The Silk Road and Sino-foreign friendship After the opening of the Silk Road, friendly exchanges between China and various ethnic groups in Central Asia, West Asia and Southern Europe have continued and become increasingly close.
In the 2nd century BC, Zhang Qian went on his first mission to the Western Regions (138 BC to 126 BC). He visited Dayuan, Kangju, and Dayuezhi. After returning home, he reported to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty The situation of various countries in the Western Region.
In 121 BC and 119 BC, Huo Qubing and Wei Qing defeated the Xiongnu twice, controlled the Hexi Corridor, and forced the Xiongnu to flee to Mobei. At this time, Zhang Qian went on his second mission to the Western Regions (119 BC to 115 BC). He led an envoy of 300 people to Wusun, and sent deputy envoys from Wusun to Dayuan, Kangju, Dayuezhi and Dawan. Xia and other countries visited. When the Han envoys arrived in Parthia, the Parthian king sent a general with 20,000 cavalry to the eastern border to greet him. When the Han envoy returned home, An An also presented big bird eggs (ostrich eggs) and Li Xuanxuan people (Roman acrobats) to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. Other countries also sent envoys to communicate with each other; friendly relations between China and foreign countries began to develop with the exchanges of envoys, business trips and people.
At the end of the 1st century BC, the Yuezhi people introduced Indian Buddhism to China via the Silk Road. According to records, in 2 BC, "Doctor Jinglu's disciple Jinglu received the Buddha Sutra from King Dayuezhi's envoy Yicunkou" ("Wei Lue·Xirong Biography"). In the first year of Emperor Zhanghe of the Han Dynasty (AD 87), King Anxi sent envoys to China to offer lions and talismans ("Book of the Later Han: Biography of the Western Regions"). In the 13th year of Emperor Yongyuan of the Han Dynasty (AD 101), King Manqu of Parthia sent envoys to China and presented them with lions and large birds (Parthia sparrows). In 148 AD, the Parthian eminent monk Anqing (named Shigao) came to China to spread Buddhism. From 148 to 171 AD, he translated Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang and translated 35 Buddhist scriptures and 41 volumes. He not only played a very important role in the spread of Buddhist culture, but also in the development of translated literature in my country. Since then, the exchanges between envoys and people have become closer. From the Northern and Southern Dynasties to the Tang Dynasty, Iranian Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Christianity (Nestorianism) were also introduced to China. In 105 AD, Cai Lun improved papermaking technology. About forty or fifty years later, Sogdian merchants shipped tattered paper made in China to Central Asia. In the twelfth year of Emperor Yongyuan of the Han Dynasty (AD 100), "Mengqi (Macedonia) and Dole (Thrace) in the Western Regions sent envoys to be included" ("Book of the Later Han: Chronicles of Emperor He"), which is the historical record of China The beginning of direct contact with Europe. In the ninth year of Yanxi (AD 166) of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Roman emperor sent envoys to China to offer ivory and other gifts. In the fifth year of Sun Quan and Huangwu of the Three Kingdoms era (AD 226), Roman merchants came to Jianye to meet Sun Quan, and other activities are recorded in history. These have directly enhanced mutual understanding and economic and cultural exchanges between China and European countries.
But it has also had certain negative impacts:
1. The opening of the Silk Road has given our country a channel with Western countries, which carries almost all trade and exchange. However, as a big country with a long coastline, relying solely on road transportation seems to mean that this ancient Eastern country will definitely be bullied in the Age of Discovery in the 19th century. Because of the existence of the Silk Road, our country's exchanges with foreign countries are mainly based on road transportation, and the main exchange countries are limited to Persia in the Middle East, our neighboring country India, etc. The singleness of the imported culture also affected our country's later isolation. In medieval Europe, Spain and Britain all actively developed navies, but our country, because of its arrogance and self-preservation, did not pay enough attention to the development of maritime transportation. Although there is a history of Zheng He's voyages to the West, it only remained in the form of ceremonial diplomatic relations and did not make much contribution to real culture and active exchanges.
2. Indirectly contributed to the collapse of the Roman Empire and the rise of nomads. The specific reason was nothing more than the outflow of a large amount of gold from the Roman Empire. The economic collapse directly led to the political and military decadence, and finally the Roman Empire's arrogance. Finally collapsed under the impact of nomads. But this collapse, in turn, accelerated the Muslimization of Persia, the transit country on the Silk Road. China's insistence on exporting silk and other luxury goods can only make Western countries with large deficits in foreign trade desperately look for "good recipes" to plunder and increase wealth at sea. The Crusades were a kind of plunder, and the later Age of Navigation was even more so. Naked plunder.
Then the so-called maritime rules emerged, which were unfair to China and caused China to fall into a semi-colonial situation for 100 years.
3. Silk is an absolute agricultural product, which is undoubtedly a hint for China’s feudal finance, which is mainly based on farming economy: all commercial activities and foreign trade activities are meaningless, only by persisting in farming Only by weaving can people have food to eat, people can live in peace, and the country can be rich, and the foreign trade along the Silk Road will continuously bring unlimited wealth to China. Therefore, China has always discouraged or even discriminated against commercial activities, including agriculture, industry and commerce. Such a ranking means that businessmen will never have status.
This has also fixed the pure character of China as a large agricultural country. Along with it, it is self-contained, arrogant and unwilling to communicate. In the end, in this self-deception and self-deception, it was caught up by the West and was eventually beaten and impoverished.