Professor Kang Bai, one of the founders of microecology in China and chairman of microecology branch of Chinese Preventive Medicine Association, recently expressed his views on the supervision of antibiotic abuse. Kang Bai believes that there are many normal flora in human body, and normal flora is indispensable to human body. After the abuse of antibiotics is banned, artificial ecological preparation "probiotics" can replace antibiotics to treat diseases.
"Probiotics" have been gradually recognized by people.
According to Professor Kang, the role of antibiotics is sterilization, whether it is bacteria or probiotics that are useful to the human body. Antibiotics not only kill pathogenic bacteria, but also kill probiotics, leading to the imbalance of normal flora in human body, which in turn leads to many diseases, such as intestinal bacterial disorder, diarrhea and a series of adverse reactions of human digestion and nutrient absorption.
Another bad result of flora imbalance is that normal bacteria that were not pathogenic have also mutated into pathogenic bacteria. In addition, the abuse of antibiotics has also caused bacterial resistance, making it difficult for many drugs to treat diseases, and antibiotics themselves have toxic and side effects, so antibiotics must not be used casually. Then, what can be used instead of antibiotics to treat diseases after the abuse of antibiotics is prohibited? The artificial production of ecological preparation "probiotics" has been gradually recognized by the scientific community. In fact, the principle of antibiotics is anti-infection, and the "probiotics" of ecological preparations are mainly anti-infection, because they have anti-infection effects and improve human immunity.
Doctors use "probiotic" therapy.
Huang Zhiguang, chief physician of pediatrics in Southern Hospital, pointed out in an interview that, in fact, antibiotics are used to treat diseases, but they also destroy human immunity. However, sometimes the research on human-related drugs is not as fast as the replication and mutation of viruses and bacteria themselves. As common antibiotics gradually lose their original functions, the research on antibiotic drugs becomes more and more difficult and advanced. Of course, the newly developed antibiotics are more lethal to germs, more lethal to bacteria beneficial to human body and more destructive to human immunity. This is a vicious circle.
Professor Huang went on to point out that in addition to studying antibiotic sterilization from the front, many human scientists also study it from another angle, such as directly supplementing "probiotics" is one of the important research fields. Many doctors also use "probiotic" therapy. Probiotics can not only strengthen the different defense functions of intestine, but also improve humoral immune response and improve the function of gastrointestinal tract as an immune barrier.
A large number of practices have fully proved that it is completely feasible for Chinese herbal medicine feed additives to replace antibiotics as animal bacteriostatic and growth promoting agents, which can not only achieve good disease prevention and growth promoting effects, but also solve the problems of drug resistance and drug residue. Compared with other "substitutes", it has many unique advantages. Natural, practical and multifunctional are unmatched by other "substitutes". Its characteristics of no drug resistance, no drug residue and no toxic and side effects, like versatility, have been proved by thousands of years of long-term practice and history. Looking back on the history of the rise and fall of antibiotics, it shows its value to human health. Enzyme preparation and live bacteria preparation are easily influenced by many factors because of their inherent protein and live bacteria characteristics, which brings difficulties to feed processing, production and storage. Sugar terpenoids, oligosaccharides, organic acids, etc. It is only a small part of many components of Chinese herbal medicine, and its function is limited. Compared with Chinese herbal medicine feed additives prepared according to the theory of traditional Chinese medicine, there are obvious shortcomings such as single composition, single function and suspicion of westernization of traditional Chinese medicine. Therefore, it can be said that replacing antibiotics with Chinese herbal medicine is the fundamental way to solve the problem of drug resistance and drug residue.
Some countermeasures to replace antibiotics in pig feed
For a long time, antibiotics, as a growth promoter, have achieved good results and played a huge role in animal husbandry. The rise of antibiotic industry has greatly promoted the progress of aquaculture. However, a large number of practical facts show that long-term and large-scale use of antibiotics will cause drug resistance of harmful strains and drug residues in livestock products. When people eat animal products with antibiotic residues, their health is damaged, and allergic poisoning reactions become more and more serious. The research on antibiotic substitutes has become a hot spot in animal nutrition research. At present, in order to promote the growth of piglets, a single technology, feed additives or feeding management can not achieve the effect of using antibacterial agents. Production experiments have proved that it is necessary to adopt comprehensive strategies to replace these antibacterial agents. The following summarizes several methods that do not contain antibiotics. In production practice, several methods work together and the effect is remarkable.
Keywords: pig; Feed additives; Countermeasures
1. On improving animal health
1. 1. piglet management
A few days ago, the first batch of antibacterial disinfectants completely refined by new technology in China was officially unveiled. With its three advantages of intelligent antivirus, broad spectrum and high efficiency, it began to replace traditional antibiotics and gradually became popular. Experts believe that future disinfectants are likely to replace chemical preparations with plant stock solution and gradually replace traditional antibiotics synthesized in the chemical industry.
According to reports, the main component of the new "plant antibiotic" is a plant extract called "rose red liquid", and its main component comes from the extract of wild hawthorn kernel. Compared with the previous antibiotics, "Rose Red Liquid" not only broke through the limitations of traditional antibiotics in killing Gram-negative bacteria and Gram-positive bacteria, but also avoided the disadvantages of traditional chemical agents, such as "killing microorganisms regardless of quality", preventing them from destroying beneficial microorganisms in the human body and killing bacteria specifically. Intelligent sterilization was realized for the first time. The identification and analysis results of more than ten scientific research units, such as the Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology of Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine and the Institute of Virology of Kunming City, Yunnan Province, have also confirmed that this new plant extract named Rose Liquid has also broken the limitation that traditional preparations can only kill limited strains or viruses, and has the ability to inhibit and kill bacteria, fungi and viruses at the same time, and can also kill gram-positive bacteria, gram-negative bacteria and anaerobic bacteria.
Many people in the medical field said that with the continuous development of biotechnology, safe, broad-spectrum and efficient biological preparations will hopefully completely replace antibiotic preparations that still rely on industrial synthesis. "Plant antibiotics" without pollution and side effects will become the mainstream trend in the future.
In addition to selecting excellent hybrid piglets, piglets can also adopt all-in and all-out feeding management: pigs with similar weight are transferred to a cleaned and disinfected pigsty at the same time, and all pigs in the same pigsty are listed at the same time. Before a new batch of pigs comes in, all pigsty should be emptied, cleaned and fumigated. Before the next batch of pigs enter the house, the whole pigsty should be thoroughly cleaned. The virulence of any disease will not increase; Can reduce the occurrence and severity of pig lung injury; Increase the average daily gain of pigs; The number of days required to reduce the weight on the market; Improve feed conversion rate; Compared with simply cleaning a single pigsty, cleaning the whole pigsty when it is empty will be more effective; It is more efficient to buy pigs for the whole pigsty than to buy pigs for a single pigsty.
1.2. Improve the health level of sows.
The health of sows will directly affect the growth of piglets.
It is very important to keep the sow in proper physical condition. In the reproductive cycle of sows, the feeding amount of feed should be adjusted in time to ensure the larger birth weight of piglets. The greater the birth weight of piglets, the stronger the disease resistance. In addition, sows suffering from streptococcus, atrophic rhinitis and asthma should also be eliminated in time.
2. About weaning age
2. 1. One view is that early weaning is necessary. According to the data recorded by {Pig Champ}, 75% of piglets were weaned for 22 days or earlier, and nearly 30% of piglets were weaned 16 days. In the past, early weaning of piglets controlled the occurrence of diseases: there were no antibodies in the blood of newborn piglets, and piglets obtained immune antibodies (such as IgG, IgA and IgM) from colostrum. The content of antibody in colostrum was high at the beginning, but it decreased rapidly after 24 hours of delivery. Piglets can only absorb immunoglobulin macromolecules through the small intestine from 24 to 36 hours after birth, and then the small intestine no longer absorbs immunoglobulin, so piglets are weaned early before obtaining antibodies.
2.2. Another view is that the weaning age should be extended. The weaning age adopted by most European farmers is generally 24 ~ 28 days. According to related experiments and research results, the older the weaning age, the better the effect. On the one hand, the body becomes stronger and the food intake will increase. On the other hand, with the growth of age, the immune system of piglets is also improving.
3. About the digestibility of nutrients
3. 1. Effect of anti-nutritional factors
Feed often contains some anti-nutritional factors, such as protein inhibitory factor, carbohydrate inhibitory factor, mineral element bioavailability inhibitory factor, vitamin antagonistic factor and animal immune system stimulating factor. Their existence interferes with the digestion, absorption and utilization of nutrients in feed and affects the digestibility of nutrients. For example, (1) bean cake contains trypsin inhibitor and hemagglutinin, which can reduce the activities of trypsin and chymotrypsin, increase the secretion of trypsin, damage the intestinal wall, increase the secretion of endogenous protein, and affect growth and death. (2) Peanut cake contains aflatoxin and antitrypsin factor, which reduces the nutritional value of feed, affects growth and leads to chronic poisoning of livestock and poultry. (3) Cottonseed cake contains free gossypol and cyclopropene fatty acid, which affects the utilization rate of lysine and mineral elements. (4) Rapeseed cake contains oxazolidine sulfur copper stasis and isothiocyanate, which affects the utilization, palatability and growth rate of iodine, causing goiter and injury, and ester tannins irritate mucosa and lead to diarrhea.
3.2. Utilization of Synthetic Amino Acids
The utilization rate of nitrogen in livestock and poultry diets is usually only 30%-50%. To improve the utilization rate of nitrogen, it is necessary to improve the balance of amino acids in diet. When the content of essential amino acids in the diet accounts for 45%-55% of the total nitrogen content, the utilization rate of nitrogen is the highest. According to statistics, the amount of nitrogen released by feces and urine decreased by 10% to 12.5% for every one percentage point lower than the crude protein level calculated by the ideal model. Adding synthetic amino acids to the diet can reduce the protein level of growing pigs and finishing pigs from 265,438+0% to 65,438+04% and 65,438+09% to 65,438+03% respectively, thus reducing the urine nitrogen output by 40% (P
3.3. Digestive tract nutrition
Unabsorbed nutrients at the end of digestive tract and ileum become the growth base of bacteria in large intestine. Huge bacterial carriers can not only consume animal nutrients, but also hide a large number of germs, such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Clostridium and so on. In addition, unabsorbed nutrients will eventually bring a heavy burden to the environment through feces excreted by animals.
4. About food intake
Feed intake plays a very important role in maintaining the visceral health of weaned piglets. Even if there is a short period of anorexia after weaning, intestinal epithelium will be easily saturated with antigen proteins, such as antigen proteins in soybean meal, and bacteria will easily attach. Piglets have frequent diarrhea because they are allergic to antigen protein or endotoxin produced by bacteria. At the same time, the reduction of feed intake will also lead to the decline of pig production performance, physical health and the extension of its slaughter period.
Therefore, it is very important to improve the feed intake of piglets by improving the palatability of diet. Good results can be achieved by using animal raw materials with good palatability such as flavoring agents and a certain proportion of dairy products in piglet stage.
5. Reduce the protein content in the diet.
Protein is needed for the growth and reproduction of bacteria. By reducing protein in diet and increasing its digestibility, the proliferation of bacteria can be obviously limited, and at the same time, the most important thing is to have a well-balanced amino acid.
It is very effective to reduce the level of protein in diet to prevent diarrhea in piglets.
6. Application of organic acids
Most pathogenic bacteria are not acid-tolerant, which means that using organic acids in diet to acidify gastrointestinal tract can actually prevent or transform the growth of bacteria, while other insoluble organic acids in small intestine are used or killed by bacteria. Mixed organic acids are more effective than single organic acids.
6. 1. Types of organic acidulants
At present, acidulants used at home and abroad can generally be divided into two categories: single acidulants (including organic acidulants and inorganic acidulants) and composite acidulants. Among them, organic acidulants mainly include citric acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid, propionic acid, malic acid, formic acid, acetic acid and their salts, and citric acid, fumaric acid and calcium formate are the most widely used and have good effects. Inorganic acidulants include strong acids (such as hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid) and weak acids (such as phosphoric acid), which are more acidic than organic acids. Although their composition is low, their use effect is poor. The compound acidifier is composed of several specific organic acids and inorganic acids. The experiment shows that the application effect of compound acidifier is greater than that of citric acid and fumaric acid. Compound acidifier can significantly improve the daily gain and feed conversion rate of weaned piglets, and significantly promote the development of digestive organs of piglets. Most researchers believe that during the first 1-2 weeks after early weaning (weaning at 3-5 weeks), the acidification effect of diet is good and obvious, and its usual addition amount is 0.5%-3%, the best in the United States is 2%-3%, and the best in Europe is 1.5%-2%.
6.2. Function of Acidifier
The stomach of animals is in an acidic environment, and the bacteria are mostly acid-producing bacteria and acid-resistant bacteria. The ability of young animals to secrete gastric acid is weak, which makes it easy for foreign bacteria to survive and reproduce. Using acidifier can improve the acidity of gastric juice, promote the proliferation of acid-resistant bacteria such as lactic acid bacteria, and keep their dominant position in the stomach, while foreign bacteria such as Escherichia coli can not adapt to the acidic environment and are "squeezed out" by lactic acid bacteria, thus reducing the incidence of pathological diarrhea in animals. Acidifiers can also help the body to regulate the immune system response and enhance the disease resistance of animals.
7. Application of plant extracts
Some herbal extracts have antibacterial and antiviral properties, but we know that flavoring agents have antibacterial and digestive properties. Among them, cinnamon, oregano and clove are the most common extracts in commercial products. The latest research shows that the extract and concentrate are very suitable for the growth of piglets. Application of Glycoterpenoids Glycoterpenoids are natural active substances extracted from Camellia oleifera meal and Camellia oleifera seed meal, which mainly contain oligosaccharides, triterpenoid saponins and organic acids. It is a successful green feed additive and has been widely used in feed production.
8. The application of enzyme preparation
8. 1. Types of enzyme preparations
Since 1965 the first enzyme preparation factory in Wuxi was established, after more than 30 years of efforts, the enzyme preparation products in China have been increasing and the quality has been improving. At present, hundreds of products have been developed, such as α-amylase, β-amylase, protease, lipase, cellulase, pectinase, β-glucanase, mannose, phytate plum and so on.
8.2. The role of enzyme preparation
Enzyme preparation can supplement the deficiency of endogenous enzyme activity, which has the disadvantages of insufficient digestive tract enzyme and low activity of young animals. Adding enzyme preparation can effectively make up for the adverse effects caused by insufficient enzyme amount and low activity; Enzyme preparation can also reduce or eliminate anti-nutritional factors in feed; Enzyme preparation can also reduce the viscosity of digestive tract chyme, increase the effective absorption area of intestinal wall, and promote the contact and absorption rate of nutrients with digestive tract mucosa; Enzyme preparation can also change the distribution of intestinal flora; Researchers at home and abroad believe that adding enzyme preparation to feed can obviously improve the daily gain and feed utilization rate of animals, and reduce the diarrhea rate and mortality rate of young animals.
8.2. 1. Application of phytase:
About 2/3 of phosphorus in plant feed is phytic acid phosphorus, which cannot be used by livestock, which not only wastes phosphorus resources, but also causes serious environmental pollution because most of phytic acid phosphorus is discharged from feces and urine. Moreover, phytic acid can also combine with various trace elements, which hinders its absorption. The best way to solve the phosphorus pollution in feed is to add phytase to feed. The main function of phytase is to replace or reduce the inorganic phosphorus originally added in compound feed by decomposing phytic acid and its complex in feed into inorganic phosphorus and inositol that can be used by livestock and poultry, so as to improve the utilization rate of feed phosphorus, save a lot of inorganic phosphorus resources, increase the space of feed formula, greatly reduce the discharge of phosphorus in livestock manure and reduce the pollution of phosphorus to the environment. On the other hand, phytase decomposes phytic acid, which relieves the complexation of phytic acid to phosphorus, calcium, protein, vitamins, trace elements and other nutrients, improves the potential nutritional value of feed, relatively reduces feed cost and saves feed resources.
8.2.2 Use of non-starch polysaccharide degrading enzymes:
At present, corn resources in China are scarce, and the nutritional value of wheat is higher than that of corn, which is rich in resources and is the best substitute for corn. However, there are many non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) in the cell wall of wheat seeds, especially in endosperm, which cannot be hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes of monogastric animals. Moreover, after it is partially dissolved in the digestive tract of animals, it will form a sticky colloid with protein and starch, which makes them not easy to contact with digestive juice. NSP will also combine digestive enzymes to inhibit the penetration of digestive enzymes into substrates, thus reducing the digestion and utilization rate of nutrients and the energy value of feed. In addition, the increase of undigested substances will increase the discharge of metabolic waste and greatly increase the pollution to the environment. In order to improve the utilization rate of nutrients in wheat, the most effective method is to add exogenous non-starch polysaccharide degrading enzymes.
A new polysaccharide degrading enzyme developed recently is a compound enzyme preparation with NSP degrading enzyme as the main body and cellulase, amylase, protease and phytic acid plum added. The main purpose of its use is to eliminate the anti-nutritional effect of NSP to the maximum extent, fully release the available nutrients in feed, reduce the waste of feed nutrients and improve the environmental pollution caused by animal production. This is also one of the measures taken by developed countries to fully tap feed resources and reduce environmental pollution caused by aquaculture for more than ten years. A large number of experiments have proved that adding non-starch polysaccharide enzyme can improve animal weight gain and feed utilization rate. It can improve the daily gain and feed utilization rate of piglets and reduce the mortality rate of piglets.
9. Application of probiotics
Providing beneficial live bacteria through feed is also a transformation strategy without using antibiotics.
9. 1. Types of probiotics
Probiotics, also known as living microbial agents, growth promoters and biological microbial agents, are a kind of living microbial feed additive (Fullar, 1989) which can improve the balance of intestinal flora and produce beneficial effects on animals. Besides Lactobacillus, Clostridium butyricum and Streptococcus lactis, more than 40 kinds of microorganisms are used, such as Aspergillus niger, Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus subtilis, Bifidobacterium thermophilus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Tortoise faecalis.
9.2. The role of probiotics
General antibiotics regulate intestinal microbial communities by inhibiting or destroying microorganisms, while probiotics prevent diseases by directly enhancing the inhibition of harmful intestinal microbial communities by animals, or by enhancing non-specific immune function, indirectly promoting animal growth and improving feed conversion rate. There are not only beneficial bacteria but also harmful bacteria in the digestive tract of pigs, including Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Clostridium and Campylobacter. These harmful bacteria can not only harm the host animal by producing special diseases, but also harm the health of the host animal by competing for necessary nutrients, thus reducing the production performance of the animal; On the contrary, some bacteria, such as lactic acid bacteria and bacteria producing B vitamin complex, are beneficial to the host. The ideal microbial community in the digestive tract includes a considerable number of beneficial bacteria. However, physiological factors and environmental stress will lead to the imbalance of intestinal microbial flora, lead to a large number of pathogenic microorganisms, and eventually lead to diseases in animals and decline in production performance. Probiotics increase the number of ideal flora in intestinal microflora and make the balance of intestinal microorganisms tend to be more reasonable flora. In addition, it is reported that probiotics may produce antibiotic substances to stimulate the early development of pig immune system. Many experiments have proved that probiotics can increase weight gain, improve feed conversion efficiency, promote immune function of livestock and poultry, reduce mortality and improve the environment. Such as improving the survival rate, daily gain and feed efficiency of broilers, improving the survival rate and growth rate of piglets and effectively preventing diarrhea of piglets.
10. Application of oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are not digested by digestive enzymes in animal intestines, and can only be selectively utilized by microorganisms such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium which are beneficial to the body, but not by microorganisms such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli which are harmful to the body. After oligosaccharides are utilized by beneficial bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, bifidobacteria and other intestinal beneficial bacteria proliferate. The proliferation of beneficial bacteria produces lactic acid, butyric acid, acetic acid and propionic acid, which reduces the pH value of the intestine, thus inhibiting the reproduction of acid-resistant harmful flora, thus improving the intestinal environment and the proliferation of beneficial bacteria in the intestine, among which Bifidobacterium has a strong immune effect on animals. The cell wall of Bifidobacterium contains a lot of peptidoglycan and phosphomuramic acid, which has strong biological activity and can activate the activity of peritoneal macrophages, NK cells and lymphocyte killer cells. Bifidobacterium can also be used as an immune adjuvant to stimulate the body to produce antibodies, slow down the release of antigens and prolong the action time of antigens; Bifidobacterium can also combine with cancer cells, which has anti-tumor effect, scavenging free radicals and improving SOD activity. The above mechanism significantly improves the immunity of the body, thus improving the health status of pigs. Oligosaccharides can also prevent the colonization of intestinal pathogenic bacteria and promote their excretion with feces. The results showed that intestinal pathogenic bacteria must attach to intestinal mucosa before they can colonize and reproduce in gastrointestinal tract, causing animal diseases. This combination is achieved by the combination of lectin on the surface of bacteria with specific sugar molecules in animal intestinal epithelial cells. It has been proved that most intestinal pathogenic bacteria have lectins that specifically bind oligosaccharides, so that pathogenic bacteria cannot bind with intestinal mucosal epithelial cells and are excreted with feces, thus enhancing the immunity and improving the health status of the body. Oligosaccharides also have the functions of stimulating immune response, improving immunity and improving the health level of the body. Oligosaccharides can bind to the surface of some toxins, viruses and eukaryotic cells, and serve as adjuvants for exogenous antigens, which can slow down the absorption of antigens and increase the titer of antigens. LeGarrec( 1986) reported that oligosaccharides as immune adjuvants can enhance the immunity of cells and body fluids. Spring et al. (1998) deeply studied the effect of oligosaccharides on the immunity of piglets. Oligosaccharides can significantly increase the Ig depth and the number of B lymphocytes in serum of growing pigs, and improve the humoral immune function of piglets. Oligosaccharides can also increase the concentration of interleukin (IL-2)DE, and IL-2 can make T cells proliferate and differentiate, thus improving the immune function of piglets. In addition, oligosaccharides also have antigenic properties, which can produce specific immune response and enhance the body's immunity.
In recent years, many studies have shown that adding proper amount of oligosaccharides to the diet of animals, especially young animals, can promote the growth of animals, reduce the occurrence of diseases and improve the utilization rate of feed (Fukuyasu and Oshita,1988; Bastin,1990; Borduan,1993; Sziszak,1994), Hidaka (1987), Fukuyasu( 1987), Stutton( 1998) and other studies believe that fructooligosaccharides can promote animal growth and prevent diseases. Morishita( 1982, 1992), Koayshi( 1990) and Bolduan( 1997) pointed out that oligosaccharides can promote the proliferation of beneficial bacteria such as lactic acid bacteria, bifidobacteria and streptococcus in the digestive tract, thus increasing the intestinal contents. Fukang (1987) reported that adding 0.25% oligosaccharide to piglet diet can increase the concentration of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus in piglet feces. In the experiment of Stutton et al. (1994), the addition of 1% galactan can effectively inhibit the proliferation of Escherichia coli in the ileum of piglets, while Lactobacillus is significantly higher than that of the control group. On the second day after weaning, the number of lactic acid bacteria in ileum was higher than that in the control group, and the difference reached a significant level on the fourth day (P
1 1. Application of immunostimulants
Hens were inoculated with some kind of E. coli super-immunity, and eggs were made into spray egg powder by special spray drying, which was used as feed for pigs to make them immune. Practice has proved that this can effectively reduce the incidence of diarrhea, especially by taking some other auxiliary measures. Pigs with visceral edema disease benefit greatly from this nutritional regulation.
Application of plasma protein and trace elements
12. 1 Application of plasma protein powder
Plasma protein powder is separated from pig blood collected in slaughterhouse and sterilized to eliminate microorganisms. It is a rich source of immunoglobulin, which can increase food intake, reduce diarrhea and provide a stable source of immunoglobulin for the stomach and small intestine.
12.2 Application of Trace Elements
Animal tissues contain about 45 kinds of mineral elements, among which trace elements related to animal nutrition mainly include iron, copper, manganese, zinc, selenium, iodine, cobalt, molybdenum, fluorine, tin, nickel, silicon, arsenic, chromium and vanadium.
For example, chromium can be used as the active ingredient of glucose tolerance factor, and participate in carbohydrate, fat, protein and nucleic acid metabolism in cooperation with insulin. Moreover, under stress, diseases (diabetes, hypoglycemia, atherosclerotic heart disease), some physiological conditions (pregnancy, secret breast), transportation, heat stress, nutritional deficiency and other conditions, the demand for chromium has increased (Zhang,1996; Gregory et al., 1999. Besides yeast chromium, other types of organic chromium include chromium nicotinate and chromium picolinate (chromium picolinate and chromium picolinate).