On the correctness of Hui Shi and Mozi's understanding of matter from the perspective of modern atomic structure theory

The process of human understanding of atomic structure1At the beginning of the 9th century, British scientist Dalton J summed up the mass proportion relationship of various elements when they combined and put forward atomism. He believes that matter is composed of atoms, which cannot be created or destroyed in chemical changes, nor can they be separated. They keep their properties unchanged in chemical reactions. The atomic mass, shape and properties of the same element are exactly the same, but the atoms of different elements are different. He described an initial model for atoms, reasonably explained the mass relationship followed by chemical reactions, and revealed the essence of macroscopic chemical phenomena from the microscopic point of view of material structure. Since Dalton J founded the atomic theory, for a long time, people thought that the atom was like a glass solid ball with no more tricks in it. With the development of science and technology, many new experimental phenomena appear, especially the discovery of electrons, X-rays and radioactivity, which makes people correct the concept of atomic inseparability and then explore the mystery of atomic composition and its internal structure. 1897, Thomson discovered the existence of electrons in atoms while studying cathode rays. This broke the concept of "atoms are inseparable" handed down by the ancient Greeks, and clearly showed people that atoms can continue to be divided and have their own internal structure. Besides electrons, what else is in atoms? How do electrons stay in atoms? What is positively charged in an atom? How is the positive charge distributed? How do negatively charged electrons interact with positively charged things? Many new problems are facing physicists. According to the scientific practice and experimental observation results at that time, physicists used their rich imagination to put forward various atomic models. Planetary Structure Atomic Model 190 1 The structural model proposed by French physicist Perrin holds that the center of the atom is some positively charged particles and the periphery is some orbiting electrons. The period of electrons corresponds to the spectral line frequency emitted by atoms, and the outermost electrons are thrown out to emit cathode rays. Neutral Atom Model 1902 German physicist Lillard put forward the neutral particle dynamic sub-model. Learnard's early observation shows that cathode rays can pass through the aluminum window in the vacuum tube and reach the outside of the tube. According to this observation, he proved in 1903 that high-speed cathode rays can pass through thousands of atoms through absorption experiments. According to the popular semi-materialists at that time, the volume of atoms is mostly empty, and the rigid matter is only about 10-9 (that is, one in 100,000). Learnard assumes that "rigid matter" is the synthesis of a large number of positive and negative charges dispersed in the internal space of atoms. Kelvin, a famous British physicist and inventor, was originally named Tang Musun. Kelvin's research has a wide range, and he has made contributions in the fields of heat, electromagnetism, fluid mechanics, optics, geophysics, mathematics and engineering applications. He published more than 600 papers in his life and obtained 70 invention patents. He enjoyed a high reputation in the scientific community at that time. Kelvin 1902 put forward the atom model of solid charged sphere, that is, the atom is regarded as a uniformly positively charged sphere with negatively charged electrons buried in it, which is in electrostatic equilibrium under normal conditions. This model was later developed by J.J. Tang Musun, and later called Tang Musun Atomic Model. Thomson, the model of raisin cake, continued to do more systematic research, trying to describe the atomic structure. Thomson believed that the atom contained a uniform anode sphere in which several negative electrons moved. According to Meyer's research on the balance of suspended magnets, he proved that if the number of electrons does not exceed a certain limit, the ring formed by these running electrons will be stable. If the number of electrons exceeds this limit, it will be listed as two rings, and so on. In this way, the increase of electrons leads to the periodic similarity in structure, and the repeated reappearance of physical and chemical properties in Mendeleev's periodic table may also be explained. In this model proposed by Thomson, the distribution of electrons in the sphere is a bit like raisins dotted in a cake. Many people call Thomson's atomic model "raisin cake model". It can not only explain why atoms are electrically neutral and how electrons are distributed in atoms, but also explain cathode ray phenomenon and the phenomenon that metals can emit electrons under ultraviolet radiation. Moreover, according to this model, it can be estimated that the size of the atom is about 10-8 cm, which is an amazing thing. Because Thomson model can explain many experimental facts at that time, it is easily accepted by many physicists. Saturn model was introduced orally by Japanese physics parent Hantaro Oka at Tokyo Mathematical Physics Society on February 5, 2003, and published a paper "Electronic Motion in Atoms Explaining Linear and Banded Spectra and Radioactivity" in Japanese, British and German magazines on February 5, 2004. He criticized Thomson's model, thinking that positive and negative electricity can't penetrate each other, and put forward a structure he called "Saturn model"-an atomic model in which electrons revolve around a positively charged core. A positively charged mass ball is surrounded by a circle of electrons distributed at equal intervals, which move in a circle at the same angular velocity. The radial vibration of electrons emits a line spectrum, and the vibration perpendicular to the torus emits a band spectrum. Electrons on the ring fly out as beta rays, and positively charged particles on the central sphere fly out as alpha rays. This Saturn model has a great influence on his later atomic nucleation model. 1905, he analyzed the experimental results such as the measurement of the charge-mass ratio of α particles and found that α particles were helium ions. 1908, Swiss scientist Franz proposed the magnetic atom model. Their model can explain some experimental facts at that time to some extent, but it can't explain many new experimental results, so it has not been further developed. A few years later, Thomson's "raisin cake model" was overthrown by his student Rutherford. The model of the solar system-nuclear models British physicist ernest rutherford came to the Cavendish laboratory in England on 1895 and studied with Thomson, becoming the first overseas graduate student. Rutherford is diligent and studious. Under the guidance of Thomson, Rutherford discovered alpha rays when he was doing his first experiment-radioactive absorption experiment. Rutherford designed an ingenious experiment. He put radioactive elements such as uranium and radium in a lead container, leaving only a small hole in the lead container. Because lead can block radiation, only a small part of the radiation comes out of the small hole, forming a narrow beam of radiation. Rutherford placed a strong magnet near the radiation beam, and it was found that one ray kept moving in a straight line without the influence of the magnet. The second ray is influenced by the magnet and biased to one side, but it is not biased badly. The third light is badly deflected. Rutherford placed materials with different thicknesses in the direction of radiation and observed the absorption of radiation. The first kind of radiation is not affected by the magnetic field, which means that it is uncharged and has strong penetrating power. Ordinary paper, sawdust and other materials can't stop the progress of radiation, only thick lead plates can completely stop it, which is called gamma rays. The second ray will be influenced by the magnetic field and biased to one side. Judging from the direction of the magnetic field, this ray is positively charged. The penetration of this kind of ray is very weak, and it can be completely blocked with a piece of paper. This is the alpha ray discovered by Rutherford. The third kind of ray is negatively charged according to the deflection direction, and its properties are the same as those of fast-moving electrons, so it is called beta ray. Rutherford was particularly interested in the alpha rays he discovered himself. After in-depth and meticulous research, he pointed out that alpha rays are positively charged particles, which are ions of helium atoms, that is, helium atoms lacking two electrons. The "counter tube" was invented by hans geiger, a German student, and can be used to measure charged particles invisible to the naked eye. With the help of Geiger counter, the research on the properties of α particles in Manchester Laboratory led by Rutherford developed rapidly. 19 10, marsden came to Manchester university. Rutherford asked him to bombard the gold foil with alpha particles, do practical experiments, and record those alpha particles passing through the gold foil with a fluorescent screen. Rutherford and Geiger have done this experiment many times, and their observations are very consistent with Thomson's raisin cake model. Marsden and Geiger repeated the experiment that had been done many times, and a miracle appeared! They not only observed scattered α particles, but also observed α particles reflected by gold foil. After doing a lot of experiments, theoretical calculations and careful consideration, he boldly put forward the atomic model of nucleus, which overthrew his teacher Thomson's atomic model of solid charged ball. Rutherford discovered that protons, that is, hydrogen ions, are the components of all nuclei through a series of nuclear reactions, and predicted neutrons, which were later discovered by his student chadwick, and finally established a nuclear structure model based on protons and neutrons. Thomson atomic model can't explain the scattering of α particles. After careful calculation and comparison, Rutherford found that large-angle scattering can only occur when the positive charge is concentrated in a small area and the alpha particle passes through a single atom. In other words, the positive charge of an atom must be concentrated in a small nucleus at the center of the atom. On the basis of this assumption, Rutherford further calculated some laws of α scattering and made some inferences. These inferences were quickly confirmed by a series of beautiful experiments by Geiger and marsden. Rutherford's atomic model is like a solar system, with positively charged nuclei like the sun and negatively charged electrons like planets orbiting the sun. In this "solar system", the force between them is electromagnetic interaction. He explained that all the positively charged substances in the atom are concentrated in a small nucleus, and most of the atomic mass is also concentrated in this small nucleus. When alpha particles shoot directly at the nucleus, they may bounce back. This satisfactorily explains the large angle scattering of α particles. Rutherford published a famous paper "Scattering of α and β particles by matter and its principle and structure". Rutherford's theory opened up a new way to study atomic structure and made immortal contributions to the development of atomic science. However, for a long time at that time, Rutherford's theory was given a cold shoulder by physicists. The fatal weakness of Rutherford's atomic model is that the electric field force between positive and negative charges can't meet the requirements of stability, that is, it can't explain how electrons stay outside the nucleus stably. Bohr model Rutherford's theory attracted a young man from Denmark. His name was Ni Bohr. On the basis of Rutherford model, he put forward the quantized orbit of electrons outside the nucleus, solved the stability problem of atomic structure, and described a complete and convincing theory of atomic structure. Born into a family of professors in Copenhagen, Bohr received his doctorate from the University of Copenhagen in1910/. 19 12 studied in Rutherford's laboratory from March to July, during which his atomic theory was born. Bohr first extended Planck's quantum hypothesis to the internal energy of atoms to solve the difficulty in the stability of Rutherford's atomic model. It is assumed that atoms can only change energy through discrete energy photons, that is, atoms can only be in discrete steady state, and the lowest steady state is the normal state of atoms. Then, inspired by my friend Hansen, the concept of steady-state transition is obtained from the combination law of spectral lines. In July and September of 19 13 and 1 1, he published three parts of his long article on atomic structure and molecular structure. Bohr's atomic theory gives such an atomic image: electrons move around the nucleus in a certain possible orbit, and the farther away from the nucleus, the higher the energy; The possible orbits are determined by the fact that the angular momentum of electrons must be an integer multiple of h/2π; When electrons move in these possible orbits, atoms do not emit or absorb energy. Only when electrons jump from one orbit to another, the emitted or absorbed radiation is single frequency. The relationship between radiation frequency and energy is given by e = h ν. Bohr's theory successfully explained the stability of atoms and the law of hydrogen atomic spectral lines. Bohr's theory greatly expanded the influence of quantum theory and accelerated its development. 19 15, the German physicist Sommerfeld extended Bohr's atomic theory to include elliptical orbits, and considered the special relativity effect of electron mass changing with speed. The fine structure of the obtained spectrum is consistent with the experiment. The electron cloud model began in the 1920s, and the modern model (electron cloud model) formed a negatively charged cloud when electrons moved around the nucleus. The exact position of the electron cannot be accurately determined at the moment of determination, which is an image metaphor. Electrons appear in a certain area outside the nucleus, like a negatively charged cloud around the nucleus, which is called "electron cloud" figuratively. Electrons are microscopic particles moving at high speed in such a small space as atoms (about 10- 10 meters in diameter). The movement of electrons outside the nucleus is different from that of macroscopic objects, and there is no definite direction and trajectory. Only the electron cloud can be used to describe its chances somewhere in the outer space of the nucleus. Electron cloud is an image description of the distribution of electrons in outer space since modern times, which is different from the planetary orbit model. Electrons have wave-particle duality, and unlike the motion of macroscopic objects, they have definite orbits, so their trajectories cannot be drawn. We can't predict where it will appear in outer space at a certain moment, only know the probability that it will appear somewhere. The development of science and technology has also announced the arrival of a new era. If the history of quantum mechanics is divided into three parts, Planck announced the birth of quantum in 1900, then Bohr announced that it entered youth in 19 13. A complete quantum theory system was established for the first time. Now, scientists have been able to take pictures of atoms by using electron microscope and scanning tunneling microscope. With the development of modern science and technology, many new experimental phenomena appear, and the process of human understanding of atoms will continue to deepen. At the same time, the in-depth exploration of atomic structure will also promote the development of other disciplines. I believe we will see a new era of scientific development.