Since the 1970s, developed countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom have entered the post-industrialization stage. At this stage, the intensity of resource consumption in developed countries has slowed down, domestic environmental problems have become increasingly prominent, and the supply of mineral resources has shifted from being domestically based to "two resources, two markets." Therefore, there have been structural adjustments in international geological survey institutions, which have redefined the positioning and development direction of national geological surveys. The most typical example is that in 1994, after the United States Geological Survey experienced the "withdrawal" and "preservation" disputes, it proposed the "U.S. Geological Survey Strategic Plan from 1995 to 2005." In the plan, numerous strategic changes in geological survey work are proposed, such as “more emphasis on disaster reduction research, resource quality and availability, non-traditional science”, etc., and “less emphasis on disaster relief research, resource distribution and quantity, traditional geoscience disciplines" etc. Not only the United States, but also geological survey agencies in Australia, the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Japan, Sweden, and Russia have made many organizational adjustments in the 1980s and 1990s, and have changed their work directions, work fields, and work priorities. Significant changes have taken place in aspects such as , working methods and so on. These adjustments are mainly reflected in the following aspects.
1. Adjust and expand the field of geological work and enhance the social service function of geological work
In the post-industrial era, the social function of geological work has changed, and the research field has continued to expand. Mineral exploration is broadened to environmental research, such as the definition of safe disposal sites for soil, water, ordinary and toxic or radioactive waste, the prevention and control of natural disasters, geological factors of climate change, underground storage of carbon dioxide, and geological information for simulating future climate development, etc. Be taken seriously. The intensity of structural adjustment of geological work in different countries varies, mainly depending on national conditions. The United States Geological Survey pays more attention to hydrogeology, engineering geology and environmental geology, and European countries have similar situations. According to Jacques Varet's (2000) survey and analysis of the Geological Surveys of European countries, among the 27 available answer sheets (***33 countries were surveyed), the areas where the Geological Survey's workload has increased the most are information supply, hydrogeology, In the fields of natural disaster and pollution prevention and control, the areas with the largest workload reduction are metal deposits, oil and gas, solid fuels, etc. (Table 2-2).
Table 2-2 List of increases and decreases in the workload of special topics (fields) of geological surveys in major European countries
After entering the 21st century, the U.S. National Research Council required the U.S. Geological Survey to On the basis of work, we shift from information collection to analysis, comprehensive interpretation and application of information to meet the needs of different users (column 2-1).
Column 2-1 Strategic Change of the United States Geological Survey
The United States Geological Survey is an extremely important information provision and information coordination agency. The information it provides and coordinates is related to Some key issues in natural science. The U.S. Geological Survey is evolving from an agency that discovered "what's there" when it was first formed, to one that seeks to understand "why something is there" (i.e., process understanding). In other words, we must not only know what is happening, but also why it is happening. In the near future, the U.S. Geological Survey will transform into a natural science and information agency, which means that the work of the U.S. Geological Survey will undergo strategic changes in the following three aspects.
The work of the US Geological Survey should shift from more passive research and analysis of information to active dissemination of information. This strategic change means that it is not enough for the US Geological Survey to collect only first-hand observation data. It should focus on data analysis, problem solving and information dissemination. This tilt does not mean, however, that the USGS should curtail data acquisition or the collection of long-term valid data, but rather that the observational data should be more analyzed, synthesized, and interpreted for a variety of users.
The USGS should transform from a map producer to a manager and coordinator of geospatial data. Due to the application of modern high-tech technologies such as GIS, GPS and RS, modern maps have a dynamic, multi-scale, and multi-dimensional character. Under this new situation, the US Geological Survey should conduct basic and applied research, develop geospatial database research methods, and formulate relevant standards and quality assurance systems. In terms of geospatial data construction, it should: play a leadership role.
Shift from single-disciplinary research to multi-disciplinary information comprehensive scientific research (Integrative Science) to solve problems related to the functions and processes of complex systems.
(Compiled based on the 2001 "Future Role and Opportunities of the United States Geological Survey")
After entering the post-industrialization stage, the degree of land resource investigation has become higher, and the competition for maritime resources and sovereignty has The struggle intensified, and the investigation of marine mineral resources became a new hot area. Developed countries with coastal seas regard marine geological surveys of their continental shelves and even exclusive economic zones as an important part of their national geological surveys. For example, the United States has completed seafloor geological mapping at a scale of 1:1 million for the continental shelf and a scale of 1:2 million for the exclusive economic zone. The United States Geological Survey has carried out special work on "Marine and Coastal Geological Survey". In fiscal year 1994, the state allocated US$35.365 million to it, and in fiscal year 1996, the allocation increased to US$39.7 million. The British Geological Survey has always attached great importance to marine geological surveys. From 1966 to 1991, the 1:250,000 scale geological mapping work of the British continental shelf and part of the continental slope was completed. Since then, some figures have been updated. The Geological Survey of Japan began geological mapping of some of its surrounding continental shelves in 1975. It has successively compiled 1:1 million scale regional seafloor geological maps, and compiled 1:200,000 and 1:5 maps of representative small sea areas. A 10,000-scale geological map was also compiled. A 1:3 million scale surrounding seafloor geological map and a 1:2 million scale gravity anomaly and magnetic anomaly map of the central North Pacific were also compiled. Some other countries, such as France, Sweden, and Finland, have also carried out mapping work at different scales in their waters. In recent years, the United States, Japan, and Canada have accelerated research on natural gas hydrates in sea areas, trying to identify resource potential as soon as possible, develop new technologies, and achieve the purpose of development and utilization.
2. Improve the research level of geological survey and vigorously develop modern high and new technologies
The expansion of the field of geological work, the improvement of social service function requirements, the level and research level of national geological institutions Ability raises new requirements. The geological prospecting and geological mapping work that we were familiar with in the past was highly professional and required a narrow range of knowledge. However, the development of new fields such as environment and ocean requires not only the development of new working methods and the collection of new basic information, but also It requires geological survey work to play a "leading" role in multi-disciplinary comprehensive research; use systems theory as a guide to solve major social problems such as the environment and disasters, and further serve the public with systematic, practical, and easy-to-understand information products, and promote Geoscience develops in the direction of macrogeology, resources, and environment, and continues to expand multidisciplinary research fields and related issues. The U.S. National Research Council's demonstration of "The Future Role and Opportunities of the United States Geological Survey" reflects the new requirements for geological work due to social needs in the post-industrial era.
Geological survey work requires new geological theories and new working methods: After the advent of the plate tectonics theory, the concept of the earth as a whole system has been continuously strengthened, and the theory of earth system science has been proposed, which has had a profound impact on the working methods of geological survey. influence. Since the 1990s, Western developed countries have implemented a series of geological science programs. For example, the United States implemented the "Earthscope" program in the early 21st century, Canada has been implementing the Canadian Lithosphere Program since 1984, and German research In the late 1990s, the Federation proposed the strategic plan "Earth Systems: Earth Management from Process to Knowledge". These geoscience research plans have promoted geological survey work to varying degrees and improved the level of geological survey. In order to meet the needs of environmental geology work, the United States Geological Survey attaches great importance to water resources survey and incorporates water resources management into river basin management; European countries have adjusted mapping methods to adapt to the requirements of environmental surveys, and Russia has developed a complete set of environmental geology mapping Methods etc.
Modern geological mapping work needs to be supported by high and new technologies: In order to adapt to the new requirements of geological work, we must rely on modern high and new technologies to maximize the collection range, quantity and quality of geological survey information. For example, high-tech technologies such as high-resolution aerospace remote sensing, advanced deep detection technology, and rapid on-site testing and analysis technology continue to develop, forming advanced earth observation technology and a wide range of ground and underground detection technologies in geological survey and evaluation. , rapid testing and analysis technology and other important technical systems have greatly improved the capabilities of regional geological surveys.
In modern geological mapping work, in order to improve the degree of geological survey and research (including depth of detection), it is necessary to use multiple methods for comprehensive research to solve major problems existing in regional geological mapping. Geophysical, geochemical and remote sensing surveys have become the main methods in regional geological mapping work. Especially for geological mapping in thick coverage areas, traditional field geological mapping methods are no longer applicable. At present, the common practice is to use remote sensing, geophysical or geochemical methods as a guide to quickly determine the basic outline of the main geological boundaries, and then conduct field surveys to determine the boundaries of geological bodies, such as the Australian basement "hard rock area" , Geological mapping work of Canadian moraine coverage area. Through scanning (mapping) and multi-disciplinary and multi-objective comprehensive research on some areas of strategic significance across the country, a new generation of geological maps and databases will be generated.
Achieving breakthroughs in mineral exploration requires updated prospecting ideas and methods: With the exhaustion of outcrop ores, prospecting becomes more difficult, and new ideas, new theories and new methods of prospecting are urgently needed. For example, the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Organization is implementing the "Glass Earth (Glass Earth) Project". Its goal is to make the surface layer of the Australian continent as transparent as glass within 1km, so that explorers can combine various data analysis and integration to effectively Discover mineral deposits. Since the 1990s, the Geological Survey of Canada has been implementing the "Exploration and Science" plan to develop new geophysical and geochemical methods for different mineralization zones, as well as methods for comprehensive interpretation of multidisciplinary data, in order to achieve Prospecting breakthrough.
The application of information technology promotes the modernization of geological survey work: With the development and application of information technology, developed countries have integrated global positioning systems, remote sensing technology and geographical information systems to create field geological systems. The survey data collection system realizes the digitization of field data collection. The application of modern information technology has promoted the sharing of geological survey information resources, accelerated the exchange and dissemination of geological survey information, and greatly improved the service capabilities and service levels of geological survey results. The extensive application of information technology can digitally store and manage massive geological survey information according to certain standards, and produce maps at any time according to the needs of different users. Since the 1990s, the construction of geological survey databases in the United States, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom and other countries has entered a new stage. A large number of basic survey databases, such as small and medium-scale digital topographic map databases, digital geological map databases, geophysical databases, land cover databases, and mine databases, have been basically completed. The United States Geological Survey has established a global geodetic information system, including 53 types of data in eight aspects, including maps, elevation, geology, hydrology, land cover, aerial photography, and satellite remote sensing, mainly in the United States. The Australian Geological Survey has established 58 databases in 12 categories including basic geography, geology, mineral resources, land, petroleum, ocean, environment and disasters, groundwater, geophysics, geochemistry, library materials, and metadata, and maintains and updates them at any time. The databases established and maintained by the Geological Survey of Canada include 46 databases in 13 categories including basic geography, geology, natural resources, geophysics, geochemistry, oceans, forests, land, aerial and satellite image documents, and metadata.
The widespread application of modern high and new technologies, as well as the formation and development of modern earth system science theories, have promoted modern geological work to enter a new period of major historical turning point.
3. Economic globalization and strategic changes in mineral resources
We must clearly see that after developed countries enter the post-industrialization stage, their geological work priorities have changed significantly, but they have not It doesn't mean that they don't care about resource needs, but the strategies and methods of obtaining resources have changed a lot. With the end of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, Western countries put forward the concept of "economic globalization" and changed the "resource war theory" to the "resource market theory."
Since the Second World War, with the United States and the Soviet Union competing for hegemony and the confrontation between the East and the West, mineral resources have been regarded as both the target of competition and a means to subdue the other side. This was the most important factor in formulating mineral resource strategies for many countries at that time, especially the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. Its theoretical basis is called "resource war theory". In the late 1980s, with the disintegration of the former Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, world multipolarity and economic competition became the themes of international relations.
From a global perspective, mineral resources are guaranteed, but from a single country perspective, all countries must rely on the international market, and no country is truly self-sufficient.
Since the 1990s, due to economic globalization and the global allocation of mineral resources, competition for resources has not only not weakened, but has become more intense. The establishment and mergers and acquisitions of multinational companies are important means to obtain overseas resources. Through mergers and acquisitions, mining companies introduce low-cost advanced production technology, strengthen efficiency and cost control management, achieve scale operations, enhance international competitiveness, and improve economic benefits. From 1995 to 2004, there were a total of 126 global base metal M&A cases with a transaction value of more than US$25 million, with a transaction value of US$34.516 billion; there were 177 gold M&A cases, with a transaction value of US$42.240 billion, making global resources Competition has reached fever pitch. The massive expansion of multinational mining companies further controls the global resource market. For example, the current global iron ore export market is mainly controlled by three major companies: CVRD, Rio Tinto and BHP Billiton. CVRD controls the entire European market, and the latter two dominate the Asian market. In 2004, their combined share of global iron ore trade was 80%. Global mining companies also dominate global mining financing.
Strengthening the exploration and development of overseas mineral resources is an important way to solve the mineral resource problems of various countries. Due to the intensifying competition for mineral resources and the globalization of mining, mineral trade based solely on the market has huge economic risks and obvious resource security issues. Strengthening the exploration and development of overseas mineral resources can stably provide domestic mineral products and become a common method for countries around the world. On the one hand, geological survey agencies around the world have increased their efforts in overseas geological surveys. Through the cooperation of global geological survey agencies, they can quickly understand the distribution and geological conditions of foreign mineral resources and provide effective services for domestic enterprises engaged in mineral exploration and development; On the other hand, mineral exploration work needs to rely more on prospectors and junior exploration companies, while large mining companies rely on scale operations and increase exploration and development efforts to maximize their benefits.
It should be pointed out in particular that the division of the above three stages is not absolute. Different countries may have large differences in their economic development stages and geological work development stages due to different national conditions. Therefore, the chronology will vary. There is a time difference. At the same time, countries that are establishing geological survey systems in the later stage can learn more from the experience of countries that have already established geological survey systems and avoid detours. This will not only shorten the cycle of establishing a complete geological survey system, but also coordinate basic geological surveys and environmental surveys. In the three areas of work and mineral exploration, there is no need to follow the old path traveled by previous countries. Developed countries in the world, especially the United States, Canada, Australia and other countries with rich resources, large land areas, and complete market economic systems, have basically the same development rules for geological work. However, different countries have different requirements for geological work due to different resources and environmental conditions. Not all the same.