At the same time, there are some weak links in the overall composition of our army's combat effectiveness in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China, the most prominent of which is the weak scientific and technological ability. In the War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea, the backwardness of technology and equipment made our army encounter unprecedented difficulties and paid an unprecedented price. Nie was particularly impressed by this lesson: "After the armistice of the Korean War, what often disturbed us was that we were far behind the enemy at that time in military technology. How to change this new situation step by step is a problem that we often think about. With the rapid development of modern science and technology, this problem has become more and more prominent. " [1] Nie Rongzhen has a strong sense of urgency, calling on people to have the sense of urgency of the times: "All industrial departments should have the concept of national defense and be responsible for the security of the country and people." [2] Only by proceeding from our own reality, actively developing our own science and technology and equipping our own army with cutting-edge weapons is the only way out and the real hard truth. Therefore, Nie issued a cry that "the development of cutting-edge weapons is imminent". "We must develop science and technology at a high speed, not at a medium speed or at a low speed." [3]
After the founding of New China, imperialism not only imposed a strict economic blockade on China, but also blackmailed us, seriously threatening the security of new China. We are faced with the threat of a new war of aggression. "Imperialism dares to bully us because we are backward. In order to get rid of the passive situation, we have to move forward as soon as possible, which requires vigorously developing science and technology. " [4] In the mid-1950s, Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and other leaders of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the Central Military Commission made an important decision to develop atomic bombs and missiles in China with extraordinary boldness and foresight. Nie Rongzhen has a profound understanding of the international situation and the guiding spirit of the CPC Central Committee. 1956 in may, he pointed out in a report that after the second world war, the United States' army, navy and air force have gradually adopted various missiles as standard equipment, and are still vigorously carrying out research work in this field. Britain and France are also vigorously developing various missiles. Due to the rapid development of science and technology such as jet technology, fluid mechanics and electronic computer, various missiles have broad prospects as military weapons and equipment. In order to meet the needs of China's national defense modernization, we must immediately start developing missiles and training cadres. It is necessary to solve the problem of developing one or more missiles at maximum speed within a few years. China must develop science and technology, especially master the concept of cutting-edge technology. "China, which is very backward in science and technology, must also have missiles and nuclear weapons if it is not bullied by foreign powers." . Balance comes from strength, and peace depends on deterrence. The so-called morality can only be discussed when the strength is equal. Nie Rongzhen put forward that "breaking nuclear monopoly is the most effective way to prevent nuclear war and safeguard national security". Since the first atomic bomb exploded by the United States in Alamogordo, New Mexico, nuclear weapons have become a diplomatic language. Nie Rongzhen said: "The new China, which has just stood up, must master the most advanced weapons if it wants to stop repeating the pain of humiliation and stand among the nations of the world, so that it can have the minimum counter-attack means when China is attacked by imperialist nuclear weapons." [5] China should not only develop science and technology, but also master cutting-edge science and technology, and strive for a place in the high-tech field.
Developing cutting-edge national defense technology is not only a military issue, but also an important political issue. The advanced level of national defense science and technology is an important symbol of a country's military strength and war potential, and it is a supporting force for defending national security. History has proved that whoever can occupy the commanding heights of military science and technology will gain more initiative in international affairs. On this issue, Nie naturally has a unique strategic vision. He clearly pointed out: "When will the cutting-edge customs clearance? This is not only a military issue, but also a political issue. Imperialists and all reactionaries are speculating every day when our "two bombs" will come out. They are most afraid that the people of China have nuclear weapons and rocket weapons. With these weapons, the people of China will completely bankrupt their blackmail to the people of the world. " "They are most afraid of China having an atomic bomb ... they guess once every few months. It is believed that China possesses atomic weapons, which is the biggest challenge to their strength policy and deterrence. " [6] In the mid-1950s, in view of the situation of being bullied and oppressed by imperialism, Nie was far-sighted and insisted on "two bombs". He believes that we should actively develop sophisticated weapons marked by missiles and atomic bombs, so that when attacked by imperialist nuclear weapons, we can at least have the ability to fight back. Moreover, the "two bombs" are the crystallization of modern science and technology. If we persist in doing so, we can also promote the development of many modern technologies in China. He called the relevant departments to seriously study and concluded: "As long as we persist in tackling key problems and adopt appropriate policies and measures, it is entirely possible to strive for a breakthrough in three to five years or longer." This idea was strongly supported by Mao Zedong, Marshal Chen Yi and other revolutionaries of the older generation. Marshal Chen Yi said: China's sophisticated weapons must be developed. My waist as a foreign minister is not too hard now. You take out the missile and the atomic bomb, and my waist gets stiff. [7] The construction and development of China's national defense science and technology have improved the combat effectiveness and deterrence of our army, improved China's international status, and played a great role in containing world wars and nuclear wars and safeguarding world peace. Comrade Deng Xiaoping made a pertinent comment on this in the 1980s: "If China had no atomic bombs, hydrogen bombs and satellites since the 1960s, China would not be a big country with important influence and would not have such an international status." [8]
Second, based on reality and looking to the future, determine the development goals of national defense science and technology.
The modernization of national defense science and technology needs to set clear goals. Developing science and technology, just like directing a war, requires strategic planning. Nie believes that with strategic planning, there will be the direction of progress and the goal of tackling key problems. "In a country where science and technology are very backward, we should March into science and catch up with the advanced world level; This is by no means an appeal to solve the problem. It involves many complicated organizational and leadership work, and it is important to have a practical long-term scientific research plan first. " [9] Only when the goal is determined can we concentrate the limited material, financial and human resources on the main direction of scientific and technological development and achieve a breakthrough as soon as possible. Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and other party leaders have repeatedly stressed that it is necessary to introduce the most advanced technology in the world, make up for the most scarce and urgently needed categories in China's scientific undertakings, and strive to improve China's scientific and technological level. In accordance with the spirit of this directive, Nie actively participated in leading the formulation of the national defense science and technology development plan. On April 1956 and 12, Nie issued the Opinions on the Twelve-year Scientific Planning of China's National Defense Scientific Research Projects, put forward the planning requirements for the national defense industry in the next 12 year, and put forward the development of "atomic energy technology, jet and rocket technology, semiconductor technology, automatic control technology" and so on. These five cutting-edge technologies were hailed as the "five golden flowers" of China's scientific and technological development at that time. Under the guidance of the correct development strategy, the "Five Golden Flowers" cultivated by Nie's leadership have produced fruitful achievements such as missiles, atomic bombs, hydrogen bombs and artificial satellites, which greatly enhanced China's national defense strength and promoted the national scientific and technological progress and national economic development.
The development plan of national defense science and technology modernization should be based on China's reality and set a high point. According to Nie's recollection, Zhou Enlai gave clear instructions on the general principles and requirements of this plan: "The starting point of this long-term plan is to introduce the most advanced achievements of world science to China as soon as possible according to needs and possibilities, to make up the most urgent and urgent categories of China's scientific undertakings as soon as possible, and to arrange and plan our scientific research work according to the achievements of world science so that the most urgently needed scientific departments in China can enter at the end of the third five-year plan. [10] But in the early days of liberation, China's scientific research was very weak, with few scientific research institutions and researchers, and many gaps and defects in disciplines and categories. Equipment, instruments and funds are very scarce; Important disciplines needed by national economy and national defense and some modern scientific research work are completely blank. This is the starting point for the scientific development of new China. Nie pointed out in his 12-year scientific plan that the development of military science and technology "must establish cutting-edge disciplines that are already available in the world and necessary for China's national economy and national defense, such as jet technology, computing technology, atomic energy and radio electronic technology. " [ 1 1]
The modernization of national defense science and technology should be based on reality and focus on the future. Nie is based on reality and pays more attention to the future and development prospect of national defense science and technology. Nie is based on reality and pays more attention to the future and development prospect of national defense science and technology. He stressed: "To make a scientific plan, we should not only have the ambition to catch up with the international advanced level, but also have a down-to-earth scientific attitude, attach importance to objective laws and never stipulate those projects that are beyond our power." [12] According to the characteristics of scientific research work, he summed up the idea of "three steps in scientific research" which conforms to the laws of scientific research work. 1962 In the report to Zhou Enlai in February, it was put forward that "scientific research" means that in a certain planning period, three levels of models should be arranged at the same time in the development work: the models being tested and trial-produced (production models); New model being designed; A new model that needs to be explored and studied. This arrangement can strengthen the planning and foresight of research and development work, so that different levels of models can be connected and carried out alternately; Pre-research work can also be implemented accordingly. For the same model,' three steps' means three stages: pre-research, development and small batch production. "[13] The key to" scientific research three-step chess "is to correctly handle the relationship between pre-research and model development, and its core is to have necessary technical reserves.
Starting from the strategic guiding ideology of "three steps", Nie put forward insightful opinions on a series of development projects of national defense science and technology, which promoted the whole process of "two bombs" research and even national defense science and technology.
On the issue of missile development, Nie Rongzhen pointed out: "To engage in missiles, we must have a strategic vision. To achieve this step, we must think of the next step. It is very important for the Fifth Hospital to have such an idea. Some of them can settle down, while others will continue to collect information. In this way, the ground system is determined first, and the troops are arranged in three shifts: one is engaged in medium-and short-range strategic missiles, the other is engaged in short-range strategic missiles, and the other is engaged in further models. From short-range to intercontinental, there can be thousands of kilometers in the middle, and it may be easier and safer to have a ladder. " [14] Under the guidance of this idea, China's missile research work has developed step by step and orderly. So far, it has become an important "killer weapon" in national defense strategic weapons.
Regarding the research work of military ships, Nie also put forward the requirements for the relevant departments to combine from primary to advanced, from reality to long-term. Moreover, he also expounded the truth that "haste makes waste". Following Nie's instructions, the relevant departments adjusted the relationship from imitation to self-development, and determined the development policy from "two boats and one mine" (torpedo speedboat, submarine and torpedo) to "two boats and one bomb" (speedboat, submarine and missile). In this way, first imitate, digest and absorb other people's scientific research achievements, exercise and improve our own team, and then turn to independent design in time, so that our army's ship development work will take fewer detours.
Third, take the road of national defense science and technology development with independence as the mainstay and foreign aid as the supplement.
1956, Nie adhered to the key theory and two-point theory of Marxism, and combined with the reality of China, in the Report on Strengthening China's Missile Development, he clearly stated that "missile research and manufacturing should focus on self-reliance, strive for foreign aid, and make use of the existing scientific achievements of capitalist countries as a supplement" [15]1August 958, In the report to the Central Committee on the implementation of the 12 scientific plan, "on the basis of self-reliance, strive for assistance from the Soviet Union and pay attention to the use of existing scientific achievements in capitalist countries" is the first of five basic experiences.
Nie Rongzhen resolutely opposes the blind arrogance and closed-door policy in science and technology. He believes that under the premise of emphasizing self-reliance, we should strive for foreign aid and introduce advanced technology and equipment to promote the development of science and technology in China. Learn and use the existing and advanced scientific and technological achievements of other countries for my use. 1in may, 963, he said at the symposium on technical work of industrial transportation enterprises that, in order to catch up with the advanced world level faster, "a very important way is to introduce foreign technology and combine it with our own research, pilot test and design work. We should do both, combining the two. Starting from scratch will be much slower; Only by buying foreign technology, no team can digest, master and develop further, and it is impossible to get rid of dependence. Therefore, we should combine the two aspects and grasp them with both hands. According to the needs and possibilities, we should have a good discussion, make a good investigation and study (domestic and international situation), and see which basic technologies and new industries to develop, each of which should not be too much, make one or two' models', introduce them from abroad, and digest and apply them ourselves to further develop. " [16] At the same time, he emphasized the key theory and pointed out that the purpose of importing technology is self-reliance, which must be very clear. He believes that China is so big and has such a large population that everything should be based on self-reliance, especially in cutting-edge technology and advanced weapons and equipment of the army. We should not be complacent, backward, superstitious, dependent on foreign countries or "value foreign countries". We should be self-reliant and have the courage to explore. Because it is impossible for any country to hand over the most advanced technology to China. "It is a delusion to rely on imported technology to modernize weapons and equipment. Import can't buy modernization, but we still have to do it ourselves, mainly by self-reliance. Of course, the introduction of individual key technologies is not excluded. As for the whole introduction, it was a dream. " [17] Some problems have their own particularity due to China's natural resources, technology and economic conditions, and there are no ready-made achievements at home and abroad for reference, so we need to step up our own research and experiments.
We should properly handle the relationship between self-reliance and the introduction of technology and equipment. "The important experience for backward countries to catch up with advanced countries is to quickly grasp the existing achievements of world science and technology and avoid unnecessarily studying the problems that have been solved abroad from scratch." However, "it is also one-sided not to arrange matching research and experiments and not to take the time to digest them carefully." [18] The purpose of introducing foreign advanced technology is to enhance one's self-reliance ability, and we should pay attention to combining it with one's research, pilot test and design work to cultivate one's independent ability. If we do a good job in learning and introducing foreign technological achievements, we can quickly strengthen our self-reliance in science and technology. Only by purchasing foreign advanced equipment or technology, without a team to digest, master and further improve, we will not be able to get rid of dependence. If you don't do research, experiment and design, you can't digest it, you can't become your own thing, and you can't develop on this basis. The introduction of technology must be combined with our own research, experiment and design work, and we must rely on our own team. These workloads must not be underestimated. 1979 when talking about the development of weapons and equipment with Liu Huaqing, he once again stressed: "We don't just want weapons, we must pay attention to purchasing patents. The purpose of introduction is mainly to create conditions for designing and manufacturing their own things in the future through imitation research. At the same time, our foreign exchange is limited, so we should spend our money on the cutting edge, don't want to buy everything ... we must see our technical strength and the enthusiasm of technicians. " [ 19]
Four, systematic arrangements, strong cooperation, key breakthroughs, and promote the modernization of national defense science and technology.
Faced with the backward national economic foundation and the severe national defense science and technology situation at that time, Nie Rongzhen thought: "All kinds of scientific and technological forces should implement the principle of overall arrangement and highlighting key points, and work together to form a national scientific and technological work system." [20] "Science and technology work must have a global view. All disciplines and technologies are interrelated, and no science and technology is unnecessary. " At the same time, "in the overall arrangement, we must grasp the key points and highlight the key points. In order to organize the necessary human and material resources to overcome the badly needed or weak links in the country, we must concentrate our efforts. " [2 1] Promoting the all-round development of science and technology from point to area.
Under the guidance of the principle of overall planning, focusing on key points and covering a wide range, Nie made reasonable arrangements for the modernization of national defense science and technology. First, the policy of focusing on the development of cutting-edge weapons was determined from the overall situation, and the policy of "two bombs and one satellite, missiles first" was further clarified in the development of cutting-edge weapons, which promoted the development of high-temperature materials, chemical materials, high-energy fuels, radio electronics, computing technology, telemetry and remote control technology and other disciplines; Second, the field of conventional weapons has also defined their respective development priorities, such as air defense and anti-tank weapons as the main weapons of the army, fighter jets as the main weapons of military aircraft, and "two boats and one thunder" as the main weapons of the navy, and so on. When dealing with various relations in the development of national defense science and technology, he clearly instructed that the arrangement of scientific research and production should be based on scientific research. In the arrangement of cutting-edge and routine, cutting-edge is the main one. On the cutting edge, first catch missiles, then catch atomic bombs. Without missiles, atomic bombs can hardly work. In terms of missiles, self-designed medium-and long-range ground-to-ground missiles are the main ones. Because the technical principles of various missiles are similar, the breakthrough of surface-to-surface missiles can easily lead to the breakthrough of other types of missiles. On the premise of ensuring the "two bombs" (missiles and atomic bombs) and their supporting equipment, scientific research tasks are arranged in the order of large equipment of the air force, navy and army. He also vividly compared this to "it's like crossing a river, everyone has thought about it, but the bridge is so wide that whoever comes first will have to queue up, otherwise no one will get through." [22]
After establishing the development focus of national defense science and technology, the key lies in choosing the right breakthrough. In order to choose a suitable breakthrough, Nie has been thinking: Where are the weak links in weapons and equipment research? After careful investigation and careful consideration, it was found that new raw materials, precision instruments and large equipment failed at that time, which was the main obstacle to our development of cutting-edge technology. Because modern high-performance weapons and equipment, especially missiles, atomic bombs and high-performance aircraft, have high requirements for new raw materials. Without all kinds of high-temperature resistant materials, high-energy fuels, many special materials with different properties, precision alloys, semiconductor materials, rare metal elements, artificial crystals, ultra-pure substances, rare gases and other new materials, not only the "two bombs" themselves and many parts and supporting equipment, but also a large number of scientific research projects such as military and civilian electronic components and precision instruments. To this end, Nie pointed out: A family needs daily necessities, soy sauce, vinegar and tea, which are called seven things to open the door. In my opinion, new raw materials, precision instruments and meters, electronic components, precision machinery, special equipment, testing technology and measurement standards are the rice, oil, salt, sauce, vinegar and tea for running the national defense industry and cutting-edge science well. Therefore, the clear instruction is: "Strive to basically meet the trial production needs of national defense cutting-edge through two or three years of hard work and technical clearance. The State Science and Technology Commission should focus on these projects and thoroughly grasp them. " [23]
Under Nie's leadership and support, through the active efforts and hard struggle of relevant units, the "seven things to open the door" of national defense science and technology was implemented, the obstacles were removed, the needs of missile and atomic bomb research and military and civilian departments were basically met, and the necessary conditions were created for the leap-forward development of national defense science and technology in China. By July of 1965, China had successfully trial-produced more than 2800 kinds of new metal materials, new inorganic non-metal materials and new chemical materials, which can meet the scientific research and production needs of missiles, atomic bombs, aviation, ships and radios10. Many new materials that used to need to be imported can basically be solved by themselves now. In terms of alloy steel, most of the more than 200 varieties listed in the national standards have been able to produce, and the research and production of rare metals have also achieved good results. Especially, after tackling key problems, a series of alloy steels based on China's resource conditions and useful conditions have been initially established. In terms of instruments and meters, through the active efforts and hard struggle of relevant units, we have broken through one difficulty after another and basically met the needs of missile and atomic bomb research and military and civilian departments.
Organize national defense science and technology cooperation and tackle key problems collectively. To develop China's national defense science and technology and enhance the strength of our army, we must give full play to the superiority of the socialist system, organize national cooperation, and concentrate on tackling key problems. Nie attaches great importance to the implementation of the policy of national chess game and sincere cooperation. He warned us many times: "It is very necessary to concentrate on breaking through the frontier. Guerrillas alone are not enough. Only by organizing the main corps and forming a fist can we solve the strategic task. Due to the limitations of China's current technical strength and various conditions ... we can concentrate the strength of the whole country, but we can't fight alone, we can't disperse our strength, and we can't convince each other. A research institution, production department, Ministry of Education (referring to technical colleges) and users must be closely integrated, twisted into a force, and play a game of chess throughout the country, cooperating with each other and helping each other, instead of engaging in capitalist monopoly and blocking competition with each other. Only in this way can we make new products and cutting-edge things, and national defense technology can develop at a high speed. " [24] missiles, nuclear weapons, aircraft, ships, etc. In national defense science and technology, all these are very complex and extensive technical fields, which can never be covered by any department, and in fact, it is not necessary. For example, the development of nuclear submarines involves 27 provinces and cities and thousands of scientific research and production units. The technology and problems in this respect should be handled and solved by the relevant departments. Here, according to the needs of developing and producing weapons and equipment, scientific research institutes and military departments can put forward supporting requirements to relevant departments through competent departments, and all supporting departments will organize research and production, and then provide supporting products with good quality and quantity. In this way, the whole work is carried out synchronously under centralized and unified leadership, which can not only ensure that the project does not repeat or miss items, but also meet the requirements in quality, and can also avoid uneven progress and achieve twice the result with half the effort.
Make overall arrangements for major and key scientific and technological work in the country; Organize central and local forces; * * * Complete important tasks of national significance. This is conducive to the formation of overall complementary advantages. Therefore, in scientific research, he put forward the idea of five fronts, namely, national defense research institutions, China Academy of Sciences, industrial departments, universities and local research institutions. They are five fronts in China's main scientific research corps, and these five fronts must cooperate and support each other. In order to break through the barrier of advanced weapons represented by "two bombs", he asked the relevant local scientific research departments to give great assistance to the national defense scientific research departments, especially the cooperation between the Second Machinery Department and the Seventh Machinery Department. He pointed out that in order to break through the difficulties in developing sophisticated weapons, it is important to mobilize the scientific and technological strength of the whole country and carry out nationwide scientific and technological cooperation. He compared this practice to the coordinated operation of multiple arms in the army. Both the "main attack" task and the "coordination" task are aimed at achieving the unified goal of the country. This will help all parties to work together to complete the task. This practice of centralized leadership, major research and great cooperation conforms to the modern management principle of specialization and great cooperation, and is very suitable for the organization and management of large-scale national defense science and technology production projects.