1. The science and technology system is deformed. From the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 to the outbreak of the Pacific War, Japan's science and technology system gradually evolved into a wartime military science and technology system, which was used to standardize the research and formulation of scientific policies and the popularization of science and technology education. Its purpose is to meet the needs of war, which leads to the abnormal development of the scientific and technological system. For example, the research and application of Japanese science and technology in 1930s and 1940s were mostly restricted by the needs of war, especially in military technology. From the growth of the army's weapons manufacturing, we can see that 193 1- 1945 is 100, 193 1. Army weapons manufacturing accounts for only 4. 800, but sharply increased to 39. 5% jumped from 1937 to 194 1 to 55. 70o From 1942 to 1945. On the contrary, the output of civilian products such as fiber, paper and food in August decreased by 1940 and 13 compared with the same period of last year. 9 rings, 7. 2 intestines and 39%. With the single development of scientific research and application, products tend to be purely military materials, resulting in serious imbalance between scientific research and application, heavy industry and light industry, industry and agriculture, greatly reducing the level of social productivity, and even retrogressing.
2. The great colonialism of science and technology. Japan is a rising capitalist country as well as an ambitious foreign expansion country. In order to meet the needs of military aggression and expansion, in the face of backward science and technology, Japan did not do everything possible to independently research and develop, but did everything possible to steal, copy and imitate western science and technology. For example, lateral rangefinder, lens quality, binoculars, camera and other technologies are all developed on the basis of inheriting pre-war military technologies, and these military technologies are all based on completely imitating the technologies of advanced countries in Europe and America. By the end of World War II, its own technological originality had been very small. Tang Chaoyan, a Japanese historian of science, once pointed out directly: "There is a key point in the history of modern Japanese science that must be paid special attention to, and that is the colonial nature of Japanese science and technology. The colonial nature of kissing is a huge obstacle to the establishment of an independent scientific and technological system, leaving a serious sequela for Japan's post-war scientific and technological development.
3. Serious bureaucracy and pedantry in the field of science. Due to the influence of the imperial state, Japanese scientific and technological institutions and researchers were completely controlled by feudal military bureaucrats, scholars and chaebol, which led to some technologies falling into a narrow, low-level or even pseudo-scientific situation. People who have real talent and practical learning in academia are not trusted and reused, and there are powerful bureaucrats and scholars in science, technology and fields. The academic leadership is completely in the hands of a few scholars, who ignored the authenticity and seriousness of science and blindly voted in favor of feudal military bureaucrats, resulting in Japan's science and technology becoming the exclusive product of feudal military bureaucrats, capitalists and scholars, which brought great disasters to Japan's country and nation and was also one of the important factors that contributed to Japan's defeat. On the favorable occasion of August 1945, the Japanese government accepted the Potsdam Proclamation and announced its unconditional surrender. At this time, Japan's science and technology were as depressed as its political economy. However, after painful introspection, the Japanese bravely walked out of the strange circle in the face of reality. This "reality" is first manifested in the above-mentioned "misunderstanding", followed by the serious shortage of funds, talents and equipment caused by the devastating blow and destruction of the national economy by the war, and finally, the development of science and technology is subject to the strong influence from the occupying country (the United States), and it faces the problem of national self-esteem on the specific development path. Facing this reality, as soon as the war ended, Japan immediately took measures to restore the normal development of science and technology with the "help" of the United States. First of all, almost all heavy industrial sectors will be closed and reformed, and the laws and regulations on wartime industrial control will be abolished, so that most heavy industrial sectors such as steel, shipbuilding, automobiles and artificial oil will be abolished. It will be closed or compressed, and 404 military factories and 505 heavy chemical plants originally belonging to the army and navy will be placed under the monitoring of the occupying forces for compulsory transformation. Secondly, many research institutions serving the war will be reorganized and their research projects and contents will be replaced. For example, the former Central Institute of Aeronautics was merged into the Institute of Railway Technology, and the Institute of Aeronautics of the University of Tokyo was dissolved and reorganized into the Institute of Natural Sciences, and so on. Third, dissolve the relevant scientific research leading institutions and eliminate fascist militarists. 1945 in September, the occupation authorities dissolved the technical research institute, which is the central organization leading the national scientific and technological work. During the period of 1945+00, some militarists, including Xiaoping Fujiwara, Hidetsugu in the 1980s and Shigeyoshi Matsumae, were purged. In short, in the early post-war transitional period, due to the promotion of the Japanese people, the mandatory orders of the occupation authorities and the efforts of the Japanese government, the old Japanese science and technology system completely collapsed in terms of organization, personnel and various legal institutions, and a new science and technology system was gradually established. Since then, Japanese science and technology have embarked on the road of healthy development. In the process of post-war scientific and technological development, Japan adopted many methods and measures to encourage scientific and technological development according to the domestic and international situations in different historical periods, and showed its own characteristics.
First, make full use of the original "energy". Before the end of World War II, Japan had a certain level of military scientific research and technology. After the war, through the efforts of the occupation authorities and the Japanese government, they quickly turned to military science and technology and civilian science and technology equipment, and achieved ideal achievements. At the same time, before the end of the war, due to the needs of the spear war, the Japanese government attached great importance to the training of military technicians and the improvement of the scientific and technological awareness, technical level and cultural quality of the whole people, and paid attention to strengthening the technical training of young people, popularizing scientific and technological education in society, and making national life scientific. Therefore, Japan can make full use of its original talent advantage, people's indomitable traditional spirit, advanced scientific and technological consciousness, strong competitive desire and high cultural quality, vigorously promote the reform of scientific and technological system and accelerate the development of science and technology.
Second, establish and improve a strong national academic leadership institution. After the collapse of the wartime military science and technology system, with the advocacy of the occupation authorities and the support of the Japanese government, Japan began to set up new and democratic national academic leading institutions. In June, 1947, 1, a meeting of sponsors of academic research system was held. In August of the same year, the "Academic System Reform Committee" was established to study and discuss the establishment of national academic leading institutions. In the same year, an American academic delegation arrived in Japan to guide the reform of Japanese academic institutions. After more than a year's preparation, in June 5438 +0949+65438+10, Japan formally established the first national academic leadership institution led by the government, which was responsible for leading the development of domestic scientific research. The organization is very large, consisting of 2 10 members headed by the chairman, with 7 ministries and numerous committees. 1in June, 1956, the state established the Ministry of Science and Technology, which is responsible for assisting the government to formulate principles and policies for scientific research, and cooperating with provinces and competent departments to lead scientific work throughout the country. 1959, the government established the Science and Technology Committee, which is the highest leading and consulting organ of the government in the development of science and technology. It is directly led by the head of government, and its task is to formulate the country's major policies and long-term scientific research planning objectives. The Ministry of Science and Technology and the academic Committee are responsible for daily work. These three powerful academic leading institutions played an important role in the organization, goal-setting and smooth development of Japanese science and technology after the war.
Third, widely establish scientific research institutions and recruit scientific and technological talents. A remarkable feature of Japan's post-war scientific and technological development is the complete variety, wide distribution, reasonable structure and intensive talents of research institutions. There are a large number of scientific research institutions at the central level with strong strength, which play a leading role in the development of science and technology. By the beginning of 1973, there were six research institutions under the Ministry of Science and Technology with 1656 researchers, and the annual research budget of 1972- 1973 reached 89 billion yen. In addition, many scientific research institutions have been established in various provinces, universities and private enterprises. For example, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry has an industrial technology research institute, including 13 scientific research and experimental research institutes, whose research fields involve metals, mechanics, space rockets, atomic energy conversion, chemistry, automation control and so on. The Ministry of Finance has the Institute of Finance, the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications has the Institute of Radio Wave, and the Ministry of Education has the Institute of Statistical Mathematics and Physics, the Institute of Labor Health and so on. Universities are important bases for basic scientific research in Japan. In the early 1970s, there were more than 880 institutions of higher learning in Japan, and many universities set up scientific research institutions. In private enterprises, scientific research institutions also account for a considerable proportion. According to the statistics of 1972, 75% of large companies with a price above 100 billion yen have their own specialized research institutes, and companies with a price below 1980 have their own specialized research institutes (firms). Statistics show that Japan * * In addition, large public organizations and private enterprises have their own specialized research departments, and their numbers cannot be accurately counted. ⑤ In natural science, Japan has 26 scientific and technological personnel per 10,000 people, ranking third only after the former Soviet Union (56) and the United States (28), and higher than Germany (16) and France (13).
Fourth, invest heavily in scientific and technological development. Investing heavily is an important way to develop science and technology. The Japanese government and people are fully aware of this and have made great efforts to this end. From19611962 to 1972/ 1973, the state's total appropriation for scientific research and technological experimental design increased from 59.3 billion yen to 374 billion yen, an increase of about six times; Government subsidies for ordering (scientific research projects) for institutions of higher learning and national research institutions have also increased from 1 18 and 10 billion yen to 83.8 billion yen. ⑧ In the 1980s, Japan further put forward the slogan and policy of "building the country through science and technology", and the government also greatly increased its investment in scientific research. In 1982, Japan's scientific research expenditure reached FJ daily18 billion, accounting for 2. 65438 of the gross national product. Today, these do not include large-scale scientific research projects that the state directly participates in, such as satellites, launch vehicles and large electronic computers. In addition, the total investment of private enterprises in scientific and technological research is greater than that of the state, accounting for 7000 of the total national research funds. For example, the R&D expenditure of Hitachi 1984 was 2 100 billion yen, accounting for 730o of its sales revenue, and the largest amount was Kaifa Company in the chemical industry, whose R&D expenditure reached 14.70o of its total sales revenue. In high-tech industries such as electronics, new materials and bioengineering, Japanese companies' R&D expenditure exceeds equipment investment, and they are in a leading position in the world. From this, it is not difficult to find that Japan's investment in science and technology has at least two characteristics: first, the research funds of general countries are mainly allocated by the state, while Japan mainly relies on the use of state functions to mobilize and organize private enterprises and various social forces to raise funds, which not only provides sufficient financial guarantee for the development of science and technology, but also skillfully mobilizes and takes care of the enthusiasm and interests of private enterprises, thus making Japanese science and technology enter the ranks of world-class levels. Secondly, compared with other developed countries, the absolute amount of Japanese scientific research funds is not much, but its technical level has reached the world level, which shows the importance of raising and using funds reasonably.
Fifth, actively introduce foreign advanced technology. One of the important ways for the rapid development of Japanese science and technology after World War II is to vigorously introduce foreign advanced science and technology, which is also the most prominent feature of Japanese science and technology development. In the 1940s, Japan's technical equipment level was about 20 years behind that of major capitalist countries in Europe and America. After the war, when the national strength was restored, the Japanese government took the introduction of foreign advanced technology, that is, the' absorption strategy', as an unshakable national policy. Specifically, it is mainly to buy the most advanced foreign technology, especially the patent right of basic technology. 1950- 1972 * * introduction 1 1786, with an average annual increase of more than 30%, and the expenditure on technology introduction accounts for about 45% of the total R&D activities. Due to the active introduction of foreign advanced technology, it not only solved the problem of Japanese industrial modernization, but also shortened the period for Japanese industry to catch up with and surpass the world advanced level, and enabled Japanese industry and Asian products to reach the world advanced level in a short time. However, the cost of introducing technology is heavy. In terms of funds, it is not only necessary to pay patent fees, but also to spend a lot of money to buy the right to use patent materials (that is, patent royalties). Japan spends the most on patents in the world. Even so, the Japanese government and enterprises still endure great sacrifices and try their best to introduce technology, which is mainly determined by the fierce economic competition after the war and the rapid development of science and technology. Japanese far-sighted politicians and entrepreneurs clearly realize that time has become a decisive factor in defeating their competitors, so they resolutely decided to take the road of introducing technology, and time is running out. According to statistics, Japan relies on its own strength to master the technology of new products, and it takes an average of three years from the beginning of research to production, while it only takes one and a half years to use foreign technology. At the cost of money, Japan has become one of the world's technological powers in less than 20 years.
Sixth, focus on localization. The policy of "localization" is a very clear goal pursued by successive Japanese governments after the war. While introducing technology and equipment, we should not act blindly. We should pay attention to the decomposition of bargaining parties after the introduction, and we should not improve or reform individually to create new technologies and products with Japanese characteristics. "1 machine was introduced, No.2 machine was made in China and No.3 machine was exported." That's what the Japanese say and do. For example, in order to save energy, Japanese key iron enterprises introduced two different types of blast furnace jacking power generation equipment around 1975, namely, French grip internal flow and Soviet dry axial flow. Japan analyzed the advantages and disadvantages of these two kinds of equipment: it is considered that the efficiency of French equipment is low (75%), but the structure is dust-resistant; Although the Soviet Union's equipment efficiency is high (830o), it needs preheating, and the turbine often stops running due to dust accumulation. After four years of research and reform, relevant technical departments in Japan have developed their strengths and avoided their weaknesses, and produced a Japanese-style "wet axial-flow top-pressure power generation equipment", which can run continuously for half a month to 20 days without preheating. By adopting variable injection technology, the operating rate of blast furnace can be adjusted. This improved equipment soon became a hot commodity in the international market. It can be seen that Japan's technological development from complete transplantation and imitation to individual improvement and comprehensive reform, until the localization of technical products, which is a major feature of Japan's technological development, has always maintained Japan's technological level at a high level. In addition to the above-mentioned ways of technological development, there are many methods to be proud of in Japan's technological development, such as making full use of "awareness of technological progress" to apply, prepare and study a generation; In each period, we pay attention to promoting the rapid development of several industries and promoting scientific and technological progress in various fields with the achievements of "fist" scientific research. In the more than 20 years of World War II, Japan rose again from a technologically backward country and became one of the world's technological powers, which was contributed by many factors.
First of all, the promotion of the post-war world political and economic situation, the support of the occupying power (the United States), the low expenditure on military science and technology, the lack of natural resources and other objective factors have played an important role in Japan's scientific and technological development. The Second World War was an unprecedented war in human history. Its significance goes far beyond the war itself and has brought far-reaching influence to the development process of human history. Through this war, many countries have realized that economic strength plays a vital role in a country's political strength and even its comprehensive national strength. On the other hand, the unprecedented catastrophe brought by the war has also raised unprecedented acute problems for all countries, that is, vigorously developing the economy and restoring national strength. To develop the economy, we must vigorously improve the level of science and technology. "Building a country through science and technology" has become the consensus of all countries in the world. Therefore, after the war, the world set off the climax of the new technological revolution. It is in this political and economic situation that Japan's science and technology are constantly developing. After World War II, the United States occupied Japan alone as an ally for its own political and economic purposes and began to reform and help Japan in all aspects, including science and technology. As early as August 1947, the United States sent a scientific intelligence investigation team to Japan to conduct a comprehensive investigation of Japan's scientific and technological situation and help it formulate development plans and measures. Later, it gave large-scale assistance in science and technology funds and technicians, and gave Japan $2.3 billion in aid and loans in the name of "Relief Fund for the Enemy-occupied Areas" and "Rehabilitation Fund for the Enemy-occupied Areas". Stimulated by American aid, Japan's economic recovery has promoted the development of science and technology. In the future, the United States has always been Japan's largest partner in technology introduction and technology market development. Compared with the major capitalist countries in Europe and America, Japan has its own outstanding characteristics in the use of research and development funds after the war, that is, the expenditure of military research funds is the least. The new constitution adopted by Japan after the war clearly stipulates that the use of force will not be used as a tool to implement the national policy, and the right to war will be abandoned forever. War is not a national policy. This is of special significance to the demilitarization of Japanese economy and technology. In terms of the use of R&D funds, the major capitalist countries in Europe and America (the United States, Britain, France and West Germany) spend a considerable part on military scientific research, while Japan only spends 2. It accounts for 4% of its total research funding. This gives Japan more capital, manpower and financial resources to engage in the development of civilian science and technology.
Japan is an island country, with a small land and a dense population, lacking resources and serious defects in its own conditions. Oil, iron ore, raw coal, natural gas, wood and other resources are 50- 100% dependent on imports. In the early 1970s, Japan's resource imports accounted for 12 0o of the world's resource trade. One of the purposes of Japan's repeated foreign aggression and expansion in history is precisely to plunder the origin of overseas resources. The end of World War II declared this road impassable. Therefore, the "fatal defect" of poor resources forces Japan to embark on the road of developing science and technology from the perspective of bamboo shoots. It can be said that strengthening the country through science and technology is the only way for Japan.
Secondly, fundamentally speaking, the development of Japanese science and technology is driven by the broad mind, perseverance, strong sense of science and technology and bold and feasible policies and measures of the Japanese government and business people. At least the following points deserve our attention.
First, put the whole national economy in the stormy waves of the world, sail to the ocean of the world's powerful competitive market, and gradually reform the domestic system. The state encourages enterprises to enter the world market. Economic take-off depends on technological progress, and technological innovation is the driving force for rapid economic development. Therefore, when the Japanese government takes major measures to develop science and technology, such as investing heavily, importing a large number of foreign advanced technologies, and establishing scientific research institutions extensively, it can get the active support of the people, especially enterprises, so that all measures can be implemented smoothly. From the growth of Japan's export trade, we can see its scientific and technological development. During the 1960s and 1970s, the export trade increased by an average of 16.9%, among which the export of high-tech industrial products accounted for a large proportion, reaching 948,000 in 1970.
Second, pay attention to strengthening national education. The development of science and technology needs a large number of high-quality scientific and technological talents, who are the source of new ideas, concepts, theories and discoveries. Cultivating and bringing up scientific and technological talents is the key to the development of science and technology, and education is an important way to cultivate talents. It is precisely because successive Japanese governments realized the relationship between the development of education and the rapid development of science and technology that Japan began to carry out educational reform shortly after the war. Abolish militaristic education, reform the education system, implement measures such as school education liberalization and educational administration democratization, and continuously expand educational investment. Japan's education expenditure increased from1598.8 billion yen in 1950 to 72,243.9 billion yen in 1972, an increase of nearly 50 times. Among the government administrative expenditures, education expenditure has remained at around 20% for a long time, which is higher than that of the United States ((kloc-0/5 yo) and the former Soviet Union ((kloc-0/60o)). Britain (1300), former west Germany ((1200). Due to attaching great importance to education, Japan has trained a large number of skilled workers and technicians who have mastered modern scientific and technological knowledge. In the 1960s, there were about 8 million junior technicians and managers who graduated from junior high school and senior high school serving various departments, mainly industrial departments. Colleges and universities have trained a large number of outstanding senior talents in science, technology and management. From 195 1- 1973, short-term college graduates increased by nearly 150 times, formal college graduates increased by 15 times, and master graduates increased from 3,000 to 12000, per/kloc-. Among them, 26 people are engaged in various natural science research. Attaching great importance to educational results has greatly improved the cultural quality and scientific awareness of the Japanese people. All these have played a positive role in the development of Japanese science and technology. From the perspective of developing science and technology, Japanese education has at least two characteristics: First, it attaches importance to school education and technical education. It is manifested in attaching importance to the popularization of education, vigorously developing higher education and forming a complete school education structure and system from low to high, thus promoting the improvement of the cultural quality of the whole people. Second, pay attention to the education of science and technology awareness of the whole people, constantly improve the education and training system of "technical breakthrough talents", and train specialized talents needed by various industries through schools, enterprises and society.
Third, technology and production are closely combined. Science and technology are productive forces, which is generally recognized by Japanese business circles and society. "The survival of enterprises depends on the progress of science and technology" has long been the consensus of the business community. Therefore, from the very beginning, Japan attached great importance to the close combination of science and technology and production, so that science and technology can be transformed into productive forces in time to serve economic construction. Various industrial enterprises have widely set up scientific research institutions and invested huge sums of money in scientific research, which has obtained indispensable science and technology for the development of enterprises. Scientific research institutions are the source of new technologies and new products for enterprises, and enterprises are the testing ground for scientific research achievements. As long as promising scientific and technological achievements come out, they can be quickly transformed into strong material productivity. The combination of science and technology with production and the healthy development of science and technology is a successful road for Japan. It not only ensures the correct development direction of science and technology, but also promotes the rapid transformation of scientific and technological achievements into productive forces.
By analyzing the transformation, starting, ways and reasons of Japan's post-war scientific and technological development, it is not difficult to see that Japan's post-war scientific and technological development has gone through a difficult and tortuous road. On this road, the Japanese are full of foresight, solid and meticulous work attitude and realistic spirit. At the same time, the course of Japan's post-war scientific and technological development also provides us with some enlightenment and reference worthy of consideration. First, let domestic science and technology fight and grow in the tide of world science and technology, and the goal of developing science and technology is always at the forefront of the world, so that it is easy to catch up with and surpass the world advanced level; Second, attach great importance to the development of education, focus on cultivating all kinds of scientific and technological talents, improve the cultural quality and scientific and technological level of the whole people, and enhance scientific and technological awareness; Third, under the condition of backward science and technology, we should dare to sacrifice immediate local interests, vigorously introduce foreign advanced technology, and at the same time pay attention to "localization" and establish a strong strategic consciousness that "input is output" in scientific and technological competition; Fourth, closely combine science and technology with production and transform it into productive forces in time; Fifth, according to China's national conditions, take the road of scientific and technological development suitable for China. The above points are worth learning for us to accelerate the pace of reform, implement "enriching the country through science and technology" and "strengthening the country through science and technology" and further deepen the concept that science and technology are the primary productive forces.