/kloc-in the 0/6th century, especially during the period of King Elizabeth, the capitalist economy developed significantly, and the wool textile industry gradually changed from scattered handicraft workshops in the early days to large-scale and centralized handicraft workshops. Norich and Norfolk in the east and southwest, Boston and Exeter in Lincolnshire have become the centers of wool spinning industry, and British woolen cloth has gradually occupied the primary position in the European market. At the same time, the mining industry and shipbuilding industry have also developed rapidly, and a number of coal mining centers and shipbuilding centers have emerged. With the frequent export of production centers and the great development of domestic market, London has become the national economic center. In terms of foreign trade, in the past, foreign businessmen in Venice and Hanseatic League manipulated the trade between Britain and northern and northern European countries. By the 6th century, all foreign trade was run by domestic businessmen. Businessmen obtained concessions from the king and organized trading companies, specializing in trade in a certain area overseas. 1554, Moscow company was established, and its franchise scope expanded from Russia to Central Asia and Persia. After 1579, eastland Company was established to deal with the trade along the Baltic Sea; 158 1 established Bovant Company to deal with the trade along the Mediterranean Sea; A Guinean company was established in 1588, which specializes in exporting gold from Africa and selling slaves to America. The British navy led by Sir Chuck was ordered to stop the Spanish fleet. When they went to England or Ireland, they tried to intercept them and prevent them from landing. Zucker led the fleet in Cadiz, sank and burned Spanish ships, and took four supply ships with him. In Casa Bay, Cascas, Spain lost 24 ships with a total cargo value of172,000 "Dhaka"; Zhu Yike also boarded an East Indian ship "san felipe" owned by the Spanish king at sea, and the value of the intercepted goods was 1 14000. It is particularly important to intercept many secret documents about East India trade, which prompted London businessmen to set up the East India Company later.
During the Du Feng Dynasty (1485 ~ 1603), Britain pursued a foreign policy of defending the interests of the British bourgeoisie and attacking Spain, Britain's main enemy. Spain has the richest colony and is Britain's most dangerous rival in business. So defeating Spain is a necessary condition for the prosperity of the British bourgeoisie.
The British's victory over Spain's unprovoked fleet aroused the bold and enterprising spirit in all fields and encouraged some captains to engage in trade navigation in the eastern waters and reach India. It is called the first important measure to promote British business prosperity. It is a charter issued by Queen Elizabeth to the East India Company in 1600, granting it the patent right of the East India Company in 15.
Captain Lancaster, head of the first delegation of the British East India Company, signed a trade contract with the Sultan of Aceh (Sumatra). When he came back, he brought a letter from Sudan to Elizabeth and a small amount of pepper. The achievements of the delegation are negligible. But Lancaster met and robbed a Portuguese cargo ship carrying 900 tons of spices on the way, which made the first expedition of the British East India Company a success. The board of directors of the British East India Company is located in London and consists of 1 directors and 24 directors elected by the shareholders' meeting for a term of one year.
In order to share the spice trade, the British East India Company's initial routes mainly point to Sumatra, Java and Moluccas. 1608 Britain tried to establish a commercial pavilion in India. Due to the lack of sufficient armed forces, the East India Company mainly used economic means to infiltrate India. /kloc-During the 0/7th century, the East India Company obtained the right to set up trading posts and do business in India mainly by sending envoys, giving gifts, bribing and helping the Great Mughal Empire. Later, the tariff was reduced and unified, and finally it was completely tax-free. It only pays tribute to the Mughal treasury once a year. In order to seize the high prices and bribes of local businessmen, the British gave Islamic businessmen and Hindu businessmen the right to trade independently under the British flag without paying domestic tariffs, which made local businessmen and usury groups throw themselves into the arms of the East India Company. These merchant groups and usury groups later became accomplices of British slavery in India. The British East India Company established a wide range of indigenous intermediary groups around British commercial stations by exempting various credit taxes. British businessmen exploited the vast number of small handicraftsmen through them. The company acquired the original land by renting a village to build a business station, and then turned the business station into a fortress with a beautiful excuse.
1603, the mughal emperor of India allowed Britain to stay in surat. Britain broke through the Portuguese obstruction and established a permanent commercial station in surat. Subsequently, the British established commercial pavilions in Jagra, Ahmedabad, and Boulaudat, brocchi. 1668, Britain gained Mumbai again. In this way, the British gradually mastered the control of the Red Sea port and Persian trade, and Mumbai became the main British colony on the west coast. Since then, the British East India Company has actively extended its tentacles to the southeast coast and northeast China, and soon established a fortified commercial pavilion-Fort St. George, and used it as the British colonial headquarters in coromandel coast, which governed all the colonies in the northeast such as Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. In view of the internal and external troubles brought about by the decline of Mughal dynasty, Britain gradually promoted "using the force in its hands to run ordinary businesses" in India. "Establishing such a system of administrative power and military power and trying to obtain such a large amount of tax revenue to support their policies ... will be the foundation of India's vast, consolidated and safe British territory at any time in the future." Britain agreed to return the captured Mughal ships and pay 6.5438+0.5 million rubles after being frustrated by blocking the ports of Mumbai and Mohn dynasty on the west coast by force, and then obtained permission to engage in trade again. 1686, a war broke out between Britain and the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire defeated the British attack and shattered the British navy's attempt to seize Chittagong, thus entering a human era. With the permission of the Mughal emperor and the local government, the commercial museum was established, and some privileges were exercised with the acquiescence of the vassals. According to English laws and charters, the East India Company has the right to rule the British residents in its colonial areas; For Indian residents, he is a Chamindar (local landlord and tribal leader) to exercise power.
Colonial plunder by the Dutch East India Company
The Dutch established the East India Company at 1602. The development of entrepot trade in the Netherlands is directly related to colonial plunder. The East India Company is a joint business organization, which has obtained some administrative powers from the Dutch government. In order to obtain the maximum profit, it obtained the trade monopoly right east of the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch government, and retained the slave ownership and feudal production relations in its colonial territory, and widely used political organs to violently extract various products that conquered residents. Dutch companies resolutely plundered colonial territories by all means to prevent any export products from falling into the hands of competitors. To this end, it stipulates that all maritime traffic on the islands in the Indonesian archipelago is only allowed for Dutch ships or local ships with Dutch permission (paid taxes). Some sailors who came to the Bonda Islands without a permit were shackled and some were beaten to death.
Starting from the belief that "power is based on strength", the Dutch East India Company tried its best to seize the monopoly right to operate important commodities in Indonesia, excluding Spaniards, Portuguese, British, French and Danes, and forcing local kings of Indonesian islands to respect their monopoly position. In order to facilitate the supervision of clove production, the Dutch East India Company forced Indonesians to expand the planting area of clove in Ambon Island and cut down all clove trees outside Ambon Island. Banda sells nutmeg to Javanese, Malays and other non-Dutch Europeans without permission from the Netherlands. The Dutch East India Company almost killed more than 5,000 residents of Banda Island/Kloc-0, of which 800 people were taken to Adam slaves in Batavia for cruel treatment, heavy labor and inhuman life, and 176 people died in just six months.
The Dutch East India Company also distributed the land on Banda Island to Dutch veterans. On other conquered islands, land was also allocated (or sold) to company employees, but company employees must bear the obligation to lend all products to the company at strictly stipulated prices. Those who try to sell their products to others will be severely punished. This kind of "private land" (the Dutch call a piece of land "Belek", and the people who own this kind of land are called "Belek". The Master of Belek was cultivated by residents or slaves fixed on the land, so there was a great demand for slaves, and there were not enough prisoners during the invasion. So he organized an industry to plunder the residents of neighboring islands, and when they still could not meet their needs, they bought a large number of slaves from Africa and other places. However, these "North Shippers" did not sell their products to the East India Company, but quietly sold them to other Europeans for huge profits.
What's more, the Dutch East India Company forced Indonesian farmers to destroy their rest crops to grow coffee, which is in great demand in the world market, and devoted all their energy to the cultivation of coffee trees. When the price of coffee in the European market fell, the Dutch East India Company forced residents to cut down all the coffee trees they had worked so hard to grow. When the price in the European market rose again, they forced Indonesians to plant coffee trees. The Dutch rule by bloody terror. As long as the Indonesian people show a little resistance, the Dutch will kill them all. It is in this extremely cruel way that the Dutch monopolized the spice trade and sold spices from Indonesia at an alarming high price on the Amsterdam exchange where almost all European businessmen gathered. The Dutch East India Company has become a commodity supplier of monopoly trade in Europe and the East.
In Indonesia, the Dutch not only became suppliers of monopoly commodities in Europe and the East, but also turned local feudal lords into agents who plundered Indonesian farmers. These feudal lords also collected export products from farmers through taxation. In the areas under the jurisdiction of local feudal lords, the Dutch initially signed many commercial contracts to ensure the freedom of trade and various commercial privileges of the Dutch. With the strengthening of the East India Company, the freedom of trade has become an obligation to trade only with the Dutch. The eastern countries under the rule of Dutch colonialists have been plundered continuously since the implementation of the forced lease system, which has damaged their productivity and hindered their economic and cultural development. The Dutch only reserved judicial power and administrative power for feudal lords, and all other rights fell into their hands. The Dutch East India Company became a country with real territory.
Capturing the colonies and squeezing the blood and sweat of the colonial people made the Dutch East India Company rich. The dividend of East India Company is increasing day by day, with an average annual dividend of 65,438+08%. It is estimated that from 65,438+0,602 to 65,438+0,782, the East India Company paid 2,322,000,000 Dutch guilders, which is 36 times the share capital. The development of trade has increased the number of ships of the East India Company. At first, the tonnage of the East India Company was only 800 tons, but later it was increased to 1000 ~ 1200 tons. During the period of 65,438+0602 ~ 65,438+0625, 65,438+00 ships sailed from the Netherlands to Indonesia (the round trip takes about 6 months on average), and during the period of 65,438+0626 ~ 65,438+0670, there were 22 ships, 65,438+067. Take the scale as an example. 1659, the East India Company owned 5 1 merchant ships, including 17 ships with a deadweight of 1000 tons. A century later, it has more than 50 cargo ships with a load of 1000 tons.
France arrived late and set up a commercial company.
The French have long expressed their desire to engage in eastern trade, but among the European powers, they are the last country to compete with other European companies in the East. King Henry IV of France revived the kingship, saved expenses, lightened the financial burden, reduced taxes, lured expatriates, and, with stable prices, agricultural production quickly recovered, the city was revived and expanded. On this basis, Henry IV adopted a policy of encouraging industry and commerce, implemented protective tariffs, prohibited the export of raw materials such as wool and silk, and helped foreign businessmen. The eastern Mediterranean, western Asia and the Pyrenees Peninsula lost by France in the civil war resumed their commercial status. 1664, the French established a commercial company in India, and at the same time established a Normandy merchant company in Canada, and established Quebec City in the lower reaches of the St. Lawrence River in North America, extending the colonial tentacles to Asia, Africa and America.
After Henry IV was assassinated, he succeeded to the throne, but because he was young, Cardinal Li became the prime minister and actually became the ruler in power. Li pursued the patriarchal economic policy, promoted industrial and commercial development, increased wealth and consolidated the autocratic system. French businessmen and handicraft workshops colonized foreign countries. In the land trade and colonial plunder, the government protected the newly established trading companies and encouraged navigation and colonization. Encouraged by the French government, more and more people moved to Canada, some occupied some small islands in the West Indies, and began to invade Senegal and Madagascar in Africa.
However, because the French East India Company grew up on the basis of feudal autocracy, its activities were supervised by the chief executive appointed by the king, and the directors of the company were not businessmen, but court slaves and dignitaries. Even in the company's working capital, there is a reward from the king, which is much more than the shares subscribed by businessmen. These institutional factors directly affect the nature and organization of the company. The French East India Company is totally dependent on the government financially, so it is bound by bureaucratic supervision and trivial supervision by the king's officials. Its colonial enterprises did not receive the full support of the state, and often felt that funds were insufficient.
The French East India Company asked for the opportunity to expand into Southeast Asia. Mainland monarchies such as Myanmar, Cambodia and Annan in Southeast Asia seldom care about European trade. /kloc-In the 6th century, these countries hired desperate Portuguese adventurers as soldiers, and these mercenaries attempted to usurp power in Lower Myanmar and Cambodia, which aroused xenophobia in these countries. /kloc-in the 0 th and 7 th centuries, the piracy of the Portuguese and the Dutch's attempt to monopolize Vero's foreign trade intensified xenophobia. Dutch and British colonists invaded and forced Romania successively. 16 12, the British East India Company set up exhibition halls in Ayutthaya and Pattani. 16 18, Britain and the Netherlands fought for the colonial interests of Siam. Colonists not only plundered wealth through kings, but also intervened in Romania's internal affairs by force. By the middle of the17th century, the Netherlands had expelled Portuguese forces in Siam and was jealous of British forces in Siam. When the Netherlands refused to demand the monopoly of Siam's foreign trade route from King Patnalai, it sent troops to block the estuary of the Chao Phraya River, forcing Siam to sign an unequal treaty, acknowledging that the Netherlands monopolized the export trade of hides, and cases involving overseas Chinese could only be tried by the East India Company. In order to deal with the Dutch, the king of Siam mistakenly turned to the French for help. 1687, France sent troops to Siam on the pretext of aiding Rolex 1400. French officers took the opportunity to steal the command of Siam army, and French missionaries urged the king to convert to Catholicism in order to manipulate Siam's internal affairs. France's great ambition to spy on this country, including trying to station French troops in Bangkok and Mock, aroused strong public opposition, led to the anti-French uprising, mass slaughter of Catholics and expulsion of European colonists, and France paid a heavy price for it.
Throughout the colonial expansion of Indian companies, we can see that monopoly trade has accelerated the development of capitalism in the home country, but it has also destroyed the foundation of the company itself. Because the East India Company did not allow other businessmen to directly participate in the colonial market, many capitalists opposed it, and they insisted on abolishing or restricting the monopoly trade in this colonial market. On the other hand, the primitive accumulation method used by the East India Company in India or Indonesia brought the economies of these countries into a state of collapse. The greed of a handful of rich people who control these monopoly trading companies (the total number of shareholders of the British East India Company is only 2,000, and the total number of shareholders of the Dutch East India Company is only 500) also makes the monopoly companies on the verge of bankruptcy. France lost its Indian territory in 1769, and the French East India Company also came to an end, with losses as high as 1725- 1769, amounting to17 million francs. The loss of the Dutch East India Company to 179 1 is 96 million guilders. The British East India Company always covers up its financial difficulties with exaggerated reports. By the second half of the18th century, it was finally forced to borrow money from the government to make up for the losses. /kloc-At the end of 0/8, the monopoly trading companies have reached the dying stage, and their end has been put on the historical agenda.
Indian history
The full names of Indian * * and China. Before 1947, the historical territory of India included the present Republic of India, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the people of Bangladesh. The historical map after 1947 only includes the existing maps of India and China. China's history book "Historical Records and Biography of Dawan" called India "toxic"; Some people call it "Tianzhu" in "The Story of the Western Regions in the Later Han Dynasty"; Xuanzang's Records of the Western Regions of Datang was originally named "India".
India is located in the South Asian subcontinent. Bordering China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, Pakistan and other countries; It borders the Bay of Bengal in the southeast and the Arabian Sea in the southwest. It faces Maldives across the Arabian Sea in the southwest and Sri Lanka across the Pakistan Strait in the southeast. The land area is 2,974,700 square kilometers and the population is nearly 800 million (1985). The main ethnic groups are Hindustan, Telugu, Bengali, Malate, Tamil, Gujarat, Canada, Malayalam, Oriya and Punjab. In addition, there are dozens of ethnic minorities. Residents mainly believe in Hinduism, followed by Islam. Other religions are Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism. Hindi and English are official languages. The capital, New Delhi.
Prehistoric India (before 600 BC) Prehistoric India experienced Paleolithic Age, Neolithic Age, Stone Age, Indus Culture and Ganges Culture Age.
The Paleolithic Age in India started from the second glacial period of Himalayan glacier sequence, which can be divided into three stages: early, middle and late. In this era, people's life is mainly hunting and gathering, and they may have begun to domesticate livestock and grow barley.
The Neolithic age in India was about 6000 BC to 4000 BC. The tools of this period include stone-leaf stone tools, grinding stone tools and bone tools. Among them, stone leaf stone tools are the main ones. In addition, pottery began to appear in the middle of 5000 BC. Most utensils are pots, bowls and cans. There are simple color patterns outside. Neolithic residents engaged in animal husbandry, agriculture and hunting, raised cattle, sheep and goats, and planted barley, wheat and jujube trees.
Between Neolithic culture and Harappa culture, there is a culture of stone and stone combination era. Its age is about from the middle of 4 thousand BC to the middle of 3 thousand BC. Mainly distributed in the area between Ganges River and Jamuna River, Punjab, northern Rajasthan and Gujarat. The tools are mainly stone-leaf stone tools, grinding stone tools and bone tools. But red bronzes often appear, including axes, chisels, hammers, daggers, bracelets, pins, copper bars and so on. , but the number is small. Pottery is mainly wheel-made, with two-color and multi-color painted pottery. During the Stone and Stone Period, the economy was dominated by animal husbandry and agriculture. Cattle, sheep and goats are raised, and barley, wheat, beans and grapes are planted. The most important cultures in early history are Indus Valley Culture (also known as Harappa Culture) and Ganges Culture. Indus valley culture is a bronze age culture, which existed between 2350 BC and 1750 BC. Matured from 2200 BC to 2000 BC, the most important cities were Harappa and Mohenjo, which disappeared around 1750 BC. However, Harappa culture remains in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. (See indus valley civilization)
Ganges culture flourished from 1800 BC to 600 BC, which was a famous Vedic era in India. Vedic times can be divided into early and late periods. The early Rigvedic period was about 1800 BC ~ 1000 BC. The later period is about 1000 BC ~ 600 BC (see Vedas).
The main areas in the pre-Vedic period were Punjab and the western edge of Uttar Pradesh; The main areas in the post-Vedic period are the upper Ganges Plain, western Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. In the early stage, the economy was dominated by animal husbandry, with no trade and no city; In the later period, agriculture was dominant, followed by animal husbandry, and iron was widely used. Early classics often mentioned tribes, but never mentioned tribal areas. The throne seems to be hereditary, but it has no autocratic power. There were signs of regional kingdoms in the later period. Family is rarely mentioned in early classics, and society is tribal; In the later period, the tribal society was divided into four societies of Varna. Among the four kinds of Varna, sudra is the lowest, Veda is the middle, and Khrushchev and Brahman are the upper. Tribute is voluntary. In the early days, religion was the personification of natural forces, and there was no ritual procedure of sacrifice; In later religions, Brahma was the highest god, and animal gods occupied an important position. A large number of sacrifices were killed during the sacrifices, and Brahmans created sacrifice programs.
The historical characteristics of ancient India (600 BC-800 AD) lie in the establishment of Varna system and its transformation to caste system, the assimilation of tribal society and its transformation to the state, the rise of land-grant system and its transformation to feudal system, the decline of Buddhism, the rise of neo-Brahmanism and its transformation to Hinduism.
Ancient Indian culture has different names because of different periods and regions. The northern Indian culture, which flourished from the 6th century BC to the 2nd century BC, is called Buddhism culture and Peacock Dynasty culture. Between BC and the beginning of AD, the culture between the north and the south was that of the Satavatana dynasty. Northern India, which flourished in the 4th to 7th centuries, is the culture of Gupta dynasty and the anti-Japanese king dynasty. The ancient culture of South India began in BC, but it was even later in the southernmost countries.
The Buddha's period (6th century BC-2nd century BC) lasted more than 400 years from the end of the Vedic period (600 BC) to the Peacock Dynasty in the kingdom of Mojeto, which was the second urban prosperity period after the prosperity of the Indus Cultural City. During this period, Sakyamuni founded Buddhism and Daxiong founded Jainism. The political, economic and social systems of ancient India were formed in this period. The rich grains produced in the middle reaches of the Ganges River (now Uttar Pradesh and eastern Bihar) meet the financial needs of big countries. According to Buddhist literature, there were 16 countries in India in the early 6th century. The main ones are Mojeto, Jiacorpse, Salo, Postscript, Gulu, Puzheluo and Gandhara. Among the great powers in this period, Varna's hierarchy replaced the tribal system. Monarchs and warriors become Khshatriya, priests and teachers become Brahmins, farmers and taxpayers become Vedas, and laborers who serve the above three levels become sudra.
During the Peacock Dynasty (322 BC ~ 65438 BC+085 BC), the founder of Peacock Dynasty in Mojeto Kingdom was Bipimiro, who was contemporary with the Buddha. In Nando Kingdom, the country is powerful, with 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry and 6,000 elephants. Alexander the Great's expeditionary force entered Punjab and hesitated. In the peacock dynasty, only the king had the right to have a standing army and accept tributes. The kingship of Peacock Dynasty indicates that the monarchy has replaced the harmonious system in a big country. The kingship of Peacock Dynasty marked Khrushchev's victory in the long struggle against Brahmins. But brahmins still had power in the peacock dynasty. The society of Peacock Dynasty was a slave society. Its characteristic is that slavery is underdeveloped, mainly domestic slaves, and there are not many slaves used for productive labor. During the reign of Ashoka, the centralized rule of the slave monarchy in ancient India reached its peak. During the period of foreign invasion (200 BC-200 AD), after the demise of the Peacock Dynasty, foreign enemies invaded northwest India. First, at the beginning of the 2nd century BC, the Greeks of Central Asia invaded the northwest of India in summer. Then came the invasion of the rest, the Serbs and the big moon family. One of the most important is the rule of Guibi Empire in India. After the establishment of the People's Republic of Kujura Cadiz, the country became stronger and stronger, invaded India and wiped out the remnants of the summer in India. During the reign of Yan Gaozhen and Ganeshega, they constantly invaded India, and all of them were included in the territory of Guishuang Empire from West India to the middle of the Ganges River basin. With the support and protection of Kaneshega, Mahayana Buddhism rose in India. Hinayana Buddhism is popular in Ceylon, Myanmar and other places.
During the period of Satavahana (65438 BC +000 ~ 200 AD), the 300-year history of Satavahana Kingdom blended Deccan culture and northern culture. The king there first granted land to Brahmins and exercised military rule over tribal areas.
During the Gupta dynasty (320 ~ 540), the Gupta dynasty rose in the ruins of uncanny workmanship. The cornerstone was laid in 275. At the beginning of the 4th century, based on the middle reaches of the Ganges River (now Uttar Pradesh and Bihar), it ruled northern and western India for about 120 years. Its military strength depends on cavalry. Resources depend on iron ore in central India and southern Bihar. Foreign trade depends on silk from northern India. Among the small kingdoms that surrendered to Gupta, a few were directly ruled by officials sent by King Gupta, and most were indirectly ruled by local chiefs. Therefore, Gupta had fewer officials than Peacock Dynasty, and its administrative organization was relatively simple. Officials' salaries are partly in cash and partly in land grant. Township governments are more important than in the past. The kingship shrinks and the official position is hereditary. Foreign trade is shrinking. The types of castes and the names of Dalits have increased. Idolatry is becoming more and more common in temples. The culture was splendid at that time. Two epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), the manuscript of Shagongdaro by Kali Dhara and the earlier Book of the Past were all compiled during the Gupta Dynasty, and some dharma books were also compiled. In terms of art, Ajanta Grottoes in China and India are rich and colorful, representing the artistic achievements of this period. (See color pictures of Ajanta Grottoes) Ancient India (3rd century BC-6th century AD)
During the period of King Jerzy (606 ~ 647), King Jerzy was the last famous emperor in ancient India. At that time, foreign trade was sluggish and there was a lack of money. The regime followed Gupta, but it was more dispersed. The capital moved from Fahrenheit to a group of women, that is, from a foreign trade city to a military and political important place. After the death of the Anti-Japanese War King, the apparent unification of North India came to an end (see the Anti-Japanese War King).
In ancient South India (200 BC-750 AD), almost every country in South India had several vassal states, and each vassal state had its own army, its own administrative system and tax collection agencies. Therefore, every country and every vassal is constantly waging wars to expand their financial resources. Social development in South India is relatively late. Farming agriculture and the formation of Cowley River Delta countries began in the 2nd century BC. The history of the southernmost country began in 1 century. Ancient South India is divided into two historical periods: the first period is from 200 BC to 300 AD; The second period is from 300 to 750. Due to the political division, the number of countries in the second phase increased compared with that in the first phase, and both commercial cities and monetary economy declined. All countries implement the land grant system.
Ancient Sino-Indian Cultural Exchanges Since the beginning of BC 1 century, Buddhism has been introduced into China through the Western Regions, and the traffic between China and India and the Western Regions has been developing day by day, with an increasing number of monks traveling from east to west. From the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Sui and Tang Dynasties (25 ~ 907), there were 72 monks from the East. As far as the nation is concerned, the rest, Yueshi and Kangju are the best in the three countries. During the Western Jin Dynasty, there were many Qiuci and Ren Bin. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, countries in the Western Regions and Indians were equally divided. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Indians dominated. In China, monks began to seek dharma from the west in the second half of the 3rd century, and reached its peak in the 5th and 7th centuries. During the 500 years from the last years of the Three Kingdoms to the middle of the Tang Dynasty, 169 monks traveled westward. Among the monks who returned from India, the most famous are Fa Xian (about 337 ~ 422) in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Xuanzang (602 ~ 664) and Yijing (635 ~ 7 13) in the Tang Dynasty. Fa Xian's Biography of Tianzhu (also known as Fa Xian Biography or Buddhism Biography), Xuan Zang's Biography of the Western Regions of Datang, The Book of Changes, The Biography of the South China Sea Returning to the Interior, and The Biography of the Great Monk Seeking Fa Westward have become valuable materials for studying the history and geography of ancient South Asia.
The end of ancient society In the 3rd century A.D., the Varna system reached its peak, flourishing and declining. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, people with different Varna exchanged marriages, and the Varna system was in danger of collapse. At the same time, the trade between India and the western Roman Empire was interrupted in the 3rd century, and the sources of metal money decreased. Since the 5th century, the land grant system has replaced cash wages. In the middle of the 6th century, Indian silk trade with Persia and Byzantium was interrupted, and the trade interests with China and Southeast Asia were mostly controlled by Arab middlemen. In the 6th century, Indian cities declined, craftsmen changed careers, agricultural self-sufficiency increased, and the status of Vedas declined, equating to sudra. The land grant system maintained the status of Brahmins, thus consolidating the Varna system, strengthening the caste system, ending the ancient society and pushing Indian society into the Middle Ages.
The Beginning of the Feudal Society in India in the Middle Ages (750 ~ 1757) There are three main opinions of China scholars on the upper limit of the feudal society in India: one holds that the slave society in India began to transition to the feudal society in the 6th ~ 5th century BC, and by the time of Ashoka, India had completely formed a feudal society. The main reason was the existence of private ownership of land and the emergence of the landlord class. The contradiction between farmers and landlords is the main contradiction, and land rent is the main exploitation income. Another view is that India's transition from slave society to feudal society began in 1 century and was completed with the rise of Gupta dynasty in the 4th century. The main reason is that with the further development of private ownership of land, the feudal landlord class came into being, and the Gupta dynasty was the 1 dynasty in which the Indian feudal landlord class gained political dominance. The third view holds that the feudal society in India began in the 8th century. This is because the historical feature of medieval India is that regional kingdoms are everywhere. The formation of regional kingdoms is closely related to the assimilation of tribal society by Hinduism, the prosperity of Hindu forces and the formation of regional languages. These basic factors were common in the 8th century.
As early as the 4th to 5th century (Gupta Dynasty), Hinduism took on a new look.