2. Foundation
(1) Foundation types are divided into lime-soil foundation, brick foundation, rubble foundation, concrete foundation and reinforced concrete foundation according to the materials used. According to buried depth, it can be divided into shallow foundation and deep foundation. The buried depth less than 5M is called shallow foundation, and the buried depth greater than 5M is called deep foundation. According to mechanical properties, it can be divided into rigid foundation and flexible foundation. According to the structural form, it can be divided into strip foundation, independent foundation, full-house foundation and pile foundation. Strip foundation: When a building is supported by a brick wall, the foundation under the wall is often set continuously, forming a long rigid foundation of strip foundation: it refers to the foundation built of materials with high compressive strength but low flexural and tensile strength. The materials used are concrete, brick, crushed stone, lime soil, concrete, etc. Generally, it can be used in civil buildings with six floors or less and light factories with wall bearing. Flexible foundation: A foundation made of materials with high tensile and bending strength is called a flexible foundation. Usually made of reinforced concrete. This kind of foundation is suitable for the situation that the load of the superstructure is relatively large, the foundation is relatively soft and the rigid foundation cannot meet the requirements. Independent foundation: when the upper part of the building is a frame structure or a single column, independent foundation is often used; If the column is prefabricated, a cup-shaped foundation is used. Whole house foundation: When the load transmitted by the superstructure is very large, the bearing capacity of the foundation is very low, and the independent foundation cannot meet the requirements of the foundation, the lower part of this building is often made into a whole reinforced concrete foundation, which becomes the whole house foundation. According to the structure, it can be divided into cutting foundation and box foundation. Deformed foundation: it is a continuous foundation buried underground, which is suitable for basements or foundations with low bearing capacity and large upper load. Box foundation: When the open-cut foundation is buried deeply and there is a basement, in order to increase the rigidity of the foundation, the bottom plate, top plate and wall of the basement are poured into an integral box foundation. Box-shaped interior space constitutes the basement, which has great strength and stiffness and is mostly used in high-rise buildings. Pile foundation: In the construction of large industrial and civil buildings, if the soft soil layer of the foundation is thick and the shallow foundation cannot meet the requirements of foundation strength and deformation, pile foundation is often used. The function of pile foundation is to transfer the load to the deep hard soil layer through the pile or to the foundation through the friction around the pile. According to the construction method, it can be divided into reinforced concrete precast pile and cast-in-place pile. Precast reinforced concrete pile: this kind of pile is prefabricated in the construction site or component yard, driven into the soil with a pile driver, and then the reinforced concrete cap is poured on the top of the pile. It has large bearing capacity, is not affected by the change of groundwater level, and has good durability. However, due to its heavy weight, it is difficult to transport and hoist. When piling, the vibration is great, which has certain influence on the surrounding houses. Reinforced concrete cast-in-place piles can be divided into casing cast-in-place piles, bored cast-in-place piles and explosive cast-in-place piles.
(2) Buried depth of foundation: The distance from outdoor design ground to the bottom of foundation is called buried depth of foundation. Proper buried depth of foundation not only ensures the safety of buildings, but also saves foundation materials and speeds up the construction progress. The following factors should be considered to determine the buried depth of building foundation: the influence of soil structure: the building foundation should be set on a solid and reliable foundation, not on a soft soil layer with low bearing capacity and high compressibility. The buried depth of foundation is closely related to soil structure. Influence of groundwater level: Groundwater has a great influence on the bearing capacity of some soil layers. The strength of cohesive soil decreases with the increase of water content; When the groundwater level drops, the soil water content decreases, and the foundation will drop. Influence of freezing line: the dividing line between frozen soil and unfrozen soil becomes freezing line. When the building foundation is in the frozen soil layer, the frost heave of the soil in winter will make the building arch upwards; When the soil layer thaws, the foundation sinks again, leaving the house in an unstable state. Influence of adjacent buildings: If there are old buildings around the new building, the buried depth of the foundation should be determined according to the above conditions, and the influence of the new building foundation on the old building should also be considered.
3. Classification of wall (1): According to its position in the plane, it can be divided into internal wall and external wall. The walls around the house are called external walls, and the walls at both ends of the house are called gables. Any wall inside a house is called an interior wall. The outer wall mainly plays the role of enclosure, and the inner wall mainly separates the room. In addition, the walls arranged along the short axis of the building are called transverse walls, and the walls arranged along the long axis of the building are called longitudinal walls. According to its stress, it can be divided into: load-bearing wall and non-load-bearing wall. The wall that directly bears the upper load is called a load-bearing wall, and the wall that does not bear the external load is called a non-load-bearing wall. According to the materials used, it can be divided into brick wall, stone wall, earth wall, block and slab wall. The wall that decorates the wall is called the mixed water wall; A wall with only jointing and no other decoration is called drywall. According to its structure, it can be divided into solid wall, hollow wall and composite wall. The solid wall is made of ordinary clay bricks or other solid bricks; The hollow wall is a hollow wall made of solid bricks or a wall made of hollow bricks; Composite wall refers to the wall composed of bricks and other materials.
(2) Brick wall thickness Brick wall thickness conforms to the specifications of bricks. The thickness of brick wall is generally expressed by the length of brick, such as half brick wall, 3/4 brick wall, 1 brick wall, 2 brick wall, etc. Its corresponding thickness is: 1 15mm, (called 12 wall) 178mm, (called 18 wall) 240mm, (called 24 wall) 365mm and (called 37 wall) 490. Generally speaking, the thicker the wall, the greater the bearing capacity and the better the stability. The thickness of brick wall should meet certain requirements of heat preservation, heat insulation, sound insulation and fire prevention. Generally speaking, the thicker the brick wall, the better the insulation effect.
(3) lintel and ring lintel: its function is to bear the upper load of the door and window openings and transfer the load to the walls on both sides of the openings. According to the materials used, it can be divided into: reinforced concrete lintel: when the hole is wide (1.5M or more) and the upper load is heavy, reinforced concrete lintel should be adopted, and the length of brick lintel with both ends penetrating into the wall is not less than 240 mm: there are common flat arch brick lintel and arc arch brick lintel. Reinforced brick lintel: Reinforced brick lintel is a reinforced brick masonry with proper amount of steel bars in the masonry above the door and window openings so that it can bear the bending moment. Ring beam: In order to enhance the overall rigidity of the building and prevent the uneven settlement of the foundation or large vibration load from adversely affecting the building, reinforced concrete or reinforced brick ring beams are often set on the outer wall and part of the inner wall of the building. Generally located on the outer wall, the inner longitudinal wall and the main inner transverse wall, forming a closed system on the plane. The position and number of ring beams are determined according to the height, number of layers and foundation conditions.
4, the ground and floor
(1) Ground: refers to the bottom floor of the building. Its basic composition includes three parts: surface layer, cushion layer and base layer. For the ground with special requirements, there are also structural levels such as moisture-proof layer, insulation layer and leveling layer. The surface layer of each floor is usually called floor, which plays a similar role as cushion and base in the ground. Surface layer: it is the place where people directly contact in daily life, work and production, and it is the surface layer of the ground and floor that directly bears various physical and chemical effects. Cushion: under the surface layer and above the base layer, it bears the load from the surface layer and transmits the load evenly to the base layer. Base: The soil layer under the cushion is the base. Ground type: integral ground: its surface layer is a whole. Including cement mortar floor, concrete floor, terrazzo floor, asphalt mortar floor, etc. Its surface layer is not a whole, but is stuck or laid on the structural layer by means of adhesive layer. Common types of block materials are: ceramic mosaic, marble, broken marble, cement tile, concrete and terrazzo precast slab. (2) Floor: it is a separate load-bearing component, which vertically divides the house into several floors, and transmits the vertical load of people and furniture and the self-weight of the floor to the foundation through walls, beams or columns. According to the materials used, it can be divided into brick floor, wood floor and reinforced concrete floor. Brick buildings are rarely used because of their troublesome construction, poor seismic performance and high floors. Wood floor is light in weight, simple in structure and good in thermal insulation, but it is less durable and fire-resistant, so it is generally used less. Reinforced concrete floor slab has the advantages of high strength, good rigidity, durability, good fire resistance and waterproof performance, which is convenient for industrial production. It is a widely used floor style now. Reinforced concrete floor can be divided into cast-in-place and precast according to construction methods. Cast-in-place reinforced concrete floor slab: its floor slab has good integrity, durability, seismic performance and high stiffness, and can adapt to various shapes of building planes. It is convenient for equipment to leave holes or set embedded parts, but the template consumption is large and the construction period is long. According to the different structures, it can be divided into the following three kinds of cast-in-place floor slabs: reinforced concrete cast-in-place floor slabs: when the distance between load-bearing walls is not large, such as kitchens and bathrooms of residential buildings, reinforced concrete floor slabs can be directly placed on the walls without beams and columns. The span of slabs is generally 2-3 meters, and the thickness of slabs is about 70-80 mm. Reinforced concrete multi-ribbed floor slabs, also known as beam slab floors, are the most common forms of cast-in-place floor slabs. It consists of a main board, a secondary beam and a main beam. The main beam can be supported by columns and walls. All plates, ribs, main beams and columns are cast-in-situ after formwork support. The general span is 1.7-2.5m and the thickness is 60-80mm. Flat slab without beam: it is a flat slab with equal thickness directly supported on columns with column caps, and there are no main beams and secondary beams. Its structure is conducive to lighting and ventilation, and it is also convenient to install pipes and arrange wires. Under the same clearance condition, the height of the building can be reduced. Its disadvantage is low stiffness, which is not conducive to bearing a large concentrated load. Precast reinforced concrete floor slab: this kind of floor slab is divided into beams and slabs, which are prefabricated in the prefabrication factory or construction site and then installed. Its advantages are that it can save formwork, improve working conditions during production and speed up construction progress; However, the integrity is poor, and certain hoisting and installation equipment is needed. With the improvement of building industrialization, especially the large-scale use of prestressed concrete technology, its application will be more and more extensive. According to its structure, it can be divided into the following types: solid plate: solid plate is simple to make, saves templates, and is suitable for parts with small span, such as corridor plate and platform plate. Trough plate: it is a kind of beam-slab composite member, which consists of panel and longitudinal rib. The load acting on the trough-shaped plate is transferred from the plate to the longitudinal ribs, and then from the longitudinal ribs to the walls or beams at both ends of the plate. In order to increase the rigidity of the trough-shaped plate, transverse ribs should be added between the two longitudinal ribs, and the two ends of the plate should be closed with end ribs. Hollow slab: the upper and lower surfaces are smooth, and the sound insulation effect is good, which is widely used in the floors and roofs of civil buildings. According to the shape of its holes, there are square holes, oval holes and round holes.
5. Windows and doors
(1) Functions and types of windows: mainly for lighting and ventilation, which can be used for enclosure and overlooking, and also have a certain impact on the appearance of buildings. The lighting function of the window mainly depends on the area of the window. The ratio of window opening area to room floor area is called window-floor ratio. The greater the ratio, the better the lighting performance. The window-to-floor ratio of a general living room is about 1/7. As a part of the envelope, windows should be properly insulated, and double-layer windows should be made in cold areas, which is helpful to prevent cold in winter. Types of windows: There are many types of windows, which can be divided into wooden windows, steel windows, aluminum alloy windows and glass fiber reinforced plastic windows according to the materials used. Among them, wooden windows and steel windows are the most widely used. According to the position of the window, it is divided into side window and skylight. Side windows are windows installed on the wall, and windows opened on the roof are called skylights, which are widely used in industrial buildings. According to the number of windows, it can be divided into single-layer windows and double-layer windows. According to the opening mode of the window, it can be divided into fixed window, casement window, hanging window, vertical rotating window, sliding window and so on.
(2) Functions and types of doors: Functions: Doors are an indispensable part of buildings. Mainly used for traffic and evacuation, but also for lighting and ventilation. The size, location, opening mode and elevation form of the door should be determined by comprehensively considering the requirements of personnel evacuation, safety and fire prevention, furniture and equipment handling and installation, architectural art, etc. The width of the door can be made into single fan, double fan and four fans according to the use requirements. When the width is less than 1M, it is single door; when it is 1.2- 1.8m, it is double door; when it is more than 2.4M, it is four door. Type: There are many kinds of doors, including wooden doors, steel doors, reinforced concrete doors, aluminum alloy doors and plastic doors. All kinds of wooden doors are still widely used, and steel doors are also widely used in industrial buildings. According to the purpose, it can be divided into: ordinary doors, screen doors, rolling doors and special thermal insulation door, soundproof doors, fire doors, security doors, explosion-proof doors and radiation-proof doors. According to the opening mode, it is divided into: horizontal door, spring door, folding door, sliding door, revolving door, curtain door and so on. Horizontal door: there are single and double doors, as well as internal and external doors. Ordinary hinge is installed on the side of the door leaf and connected with the door frame, which is convenient and flexible to open. It is one of the most widely used in industrial and civil buildings. Spring door: It is a kind of flat door. It is characterized in that a spring hinge is used instead of a common hinge, and there are two kinds of one-way opening and two-way opening. There are several kinds of hinges, single tube, double tube and floor spring. Single-tube spring hinge is suitable for doors that open inward or outward; Double-tube type is suitable for doors that can be opened in both internal and external directions. Sliding door: slide left and right to open the door. The door can be hung outside the wall or hidden in the mezzanine wall. There are two types: hanging type and sliding type. This kind of door does not occupy space when it is opened, and the force is reasonable, but the structure is complicated. Commonly used in garage, workshop door and closet door of industrial buildings. Revolving door: consists of two fixed arc door covers and three or four door leaves rotating around the vertical axis. Revolving doors have a certain effect on isolating indoor and outdoor air convection, and are often used in cold areas and air conditioning exterior doors. But the structure is complex and the cost is high, so it is not suitable for large-scale use. Rolling door: It consists of shutters, guide rails and transmission devices. The curtain plate is made of strip-shaped blades rolled from aluminum alloy. When the door is opened, the rotating shaft at the upper part of the door opening rotates to roll up the page board and roll the curtain board on the roller. The rolling door is beautiful, firm and easy to open and close, and is suitable for shops, garages and so on.
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