In the central government, the recently established minister of the Prime Minister's Office, Prince Gong? Become the representative force of the Westernization School in the central government.
Most local representatives are related to Zeng Guofan:
Hey? (1832- 1898), Aisingiorro. The sixth son of Daoguang Emperor, the half-brother of Xianfeng Emperor, 185 1 (the first year of Xianfeng) was made Prince Gong. 1In September, 860, Emperor Xianfeng fled to Jehol after the British and French allied forces captured the Bali Bridge in Tongzhou. Stay in Beijing "Duhe Bureau". 65438+1October 24th 25th, huh? Successively exchanged the ratification documents of Tianjin Treaty with the representatives of Britain and France, and concluded the Beijing Treaty. 186 1 year 1 month, the prime minister's international affairs office was established. Gui Liang and Wen Xiang were appointed directors of the General Administration. In August, Emperor Xianfeng died in Jehol. 1 1 month, huh? In collusion with Cixi, she used the heavily armed Shengbao stationed in Beijing to launch a coup, and dismissed the eight ministers of Zanxiang government affairs with Su Shun as the core. Since then, Empress Dowager Cixi has listened to politics, huh? As the king of deliberation, he is in charge of the military department and the prime minister's yamen. Hey? Advocating "borrowing foreign soldiers to help suppress" and suppressing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom revolution; Support Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Zuo and other local powerful groups to organize modern military industry and carry out westernization activities, and become the leaders of the Qing court center to preside over westernization. 1865, due to the suspicion of Cixi, he was removed from the position of reviewing Wang. 1884 during the sino-French war, he was removed from all his posts. 1894 He was re-appointed as the Prime Minister's yamen minister, and was later ordered to supervise the military. 1898 died at the beginning of the Reform Movement of 1898.
Zeng Guofan (1811-1872), a native of Xiangxiang, Hunan, was born in a landlord family. 1838 Jinshi, 1839 assistant minister. He advocated Zhu Cheng's Neo-Confucianism. 1853, Emperor Xianfeng appointed him Assistant Minister Ying Yong to supervise the armed forces of Hunan landlords Ying Yong. He established a landlord's armed forces, and all the soldiers and generals were from Hunan, so he was called "Xiang Army" or "Xiang Yong". Xiang army consolidated its interior with regional and feudal relations as a link; Armed with Zhu Cheng's Neo-Confucianism; Use plunder and official titles to boost morale; Generals are mostly selected from so-called landlord intellectuals such as "studying in Confucianism" and "students". 1854 In February, the Xiang Army became an army of about 17000 people.
After the collapse of the camp in the south of the Yangtze River, the Qing government promoted Zeng Guofan as the governor of the two rivers, in charge of military affairs in Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui and Jiangxi provinces. Zeng Guofan advocated that "many people are caught and killed quickly". This murderous executioner was called "once bald". He organized Westernization, established a new arms industry, made weapons and armed the Xiang army. 1864, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement failed. The Xiang school headed by Zeng Guofan has become the most powerful school in the local area. Soon, he died of illness.
Li Hongzhang (1823— 190 1) was a minister in the late Qing Dynasty and a local representative of the Westernization School. Word Shao Quan, from Hefei, Anhui, Daoguang Jinshi. 1853 organized youth league training in his hometown to help suppress the Taiping Army, which failed repeatedly. He took refuge in Zeng Guofan and became his staff. 186 1 year, Huai Army was organized as Xiang Army. 1April 862, Li Hongzhang and his Huai army moved to Shanghai. On April 25th, the Qing government appointed Li Hongzhang as the agent of Jiangsu Governor. In Shanghai, Li Hongzhang hired foreign invading army leaders to train the Huai army, recruited foreign craftsmen to make arms, and strengthened the reactionary forces of the Huai army. 1862, the Huai army cooperated to slaughter the Taiping Army in Jiangsu and Zhejiang. 1865, the Qing government appointed Li Hongzhang as the governor of the two rivers. In the following year 165438+ October, he was appointed as an imperial envoy to suppress the nian army. After the suppression of the Nian Army uprising, the Huai Army became stronger and stronger. A large number of Huai troops are entrenched in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, and another part is stationed in Zhili and Shandong. Li Hongzhang's influence spread all over the Yangtze River and Yellow River. 1870, at the recommendation of Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang succeeded Zeng Guofan as governor of Zhili and minister of Beiyang, and took charge of military, economic and diplomatic power, becoming a pivotal figure in the reactionary ruling class. Since the 1970s, he has successively set up arsenals to build the Beiyang Navy. At the same time, he also set up some civilian industries, such as China Maritime Bureau, Kaiping Coal Mine, Tianjin Telegraph Bureau, Jinyu Railway and Shanghai Textile Layout. He has always compromised and surrendered to foreign aggression and betrayed the country. From the 1970s of 19 to his death, the Qing government signed a series of treaties with foreign invaders, most of which he directly participated in or personally signed.
Zuo (1812-1885) was a minister in the late Qing Dynasty and a local representative of the Westernization School. The word season is high, Hunan Xiangyin people. 1860 was recommended by Zeng Guofan to command part of the Xiang army. He once recruited about 5,000 people to form the Chu Army, from which Zuo Xiang Army was formed. At the beginning of 1862, recommended by Zeng Guofan, he was promoted to the governor of Zhejiang, and organized the "Chang Jiejun" with the French Communist Party, and was trapped in Ningbo and Shaoxing. 1866, Fuzhou Shipping Bureau was established as the governor of Fujian and Zhejiang. The following year, he was transferred to the governor of Shaanxi but Gansu. "Although I went to the west, my heart is still in the east." During the period of supervising Shaanxi and Gansu, Lanzhou Manufacturing Bureau and Lanzhou Weaving Bureau were established because of the abundant wool in the northwest. From 65438 to 0875, he served as an imperial minister, supervising Xinjiang military affairs. The following year, he led the army into Xinjiang to attack the reactionary regime in Agubo. 1878, the whole territory of Xinjiang except Yili was recovered, and it was suggested to establish Xinjiang provinces and develop Xinjiang. 188 1 year, promoted to military affairs minister, transferred to liangjiang governor. 1884 during the sino-French war, he was the main war faction and supervised Fujian military affairs. The following year, he resigned due to illness and died. The Fuzhou Shipping Bureau, which he founded, abolished foreign workers after the 1970s, which was different from the situation that Li Hongzhang's Jiangnan Manufacturing General Administration said that foreigners should be foreign craftsmen, and reflected his ideological characteristics of running westernization by himself. Zhangzhidong statue
Zhang Zhidong (1837— 1909) was born in Nanpi, Zhili (now Nanpi, Hebei). 1863 Jinshi, 1882 served as governor of Shanxi. When the Sino-French War broke out, Zhang Zhidong advocated a decisive battle with France. The Qing court made him the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, and Zhang donated 3,200 taels of silver to Liu Yongfu, the general who fought against France, and paid an audience with Feng Zicai, the former magistrate of Guangxi. Feng Zicai defeated the French army in Nanguan and lang son, and Zhang Zhidong became famous. 1889 served as governor of Huguang, and built Hubei weaving layout, Hanyang Ironmaking Plant and Hanyang Arsenal, etc. In Hubei, he became a westernization figure on a par with Li Hongzhang. In the Reform Movement, Zhang Zhidong joined the "Strong Society". When he learned that Empress Dowager Cixi opposed the political reform, Zhang Zhidong withdrew from the "Strong Society". And ordered to ban the "strong magazine" in Shanghai and suppress the reform movement in Hunan. After the rise of the Boxer Rebellion, Zhang Zhidong advocated restraining pain. After the Qing court declared war, Zhang Zhidong, Governor Liu Kunyi of Liangjiang and others entered into a so-called "Southeast Mutual Protection" charter with Britain. 1908, Zhang Zhidong was ordered to supervise the Guangdong-Han Railway and the Sichuan-Han Railway in Hubei, and died in June the following year. Posthumous title Wen Xiang, whose manuscript series is The Complete Works of Zhang Wenxiang.
[Edit this paragraph] Practice process
"Middle school as the body and western learning as the application" is the guiding ideology of the Westernization Movement.
In the early days of the Westernization Movement, the Westernization School established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" and adopted advanced western production technology.
186 1 year, the Anqing ordnance institute founded by Zeng Guofan hired China craftsmen to imitate western-style guns, which was the earliest modern military industry in China. From 1862, it took three years to successfully develop China's first ship "Huanggu".
In the later period of the Westernization Movement, in order to solve the difficulties of military industry in terms of capital, fuel and transportation, the Westernization School set up many civilian industries under the banner of "seeking wealth".
The following timetable can help us understand some of the most important contents of the Westernization Movement:
186 1 year, the Qing government established the Prime Minister's Office for International Affairs, which was a newly established diplomatic institution of the Qing government.
1862 set up wentong library in Beijing to train translators, which was the earliest westernization school in Qing dynasty (1902 merged into Shi Jing university hall).
1863, "Guangdong Pavilion" was established in Shanghai; The following year, the "Guangdong Pavilion" was established in Guangzhou. The main purpose of Cantonese Pavilion is to cultivate talents who are proficient in foreign languages.
1865, Jiangnan manufacturing bureau was established in Shanghai with a translation hall; In the same year, Jinling Machinery Manufacturing Bureau was established in Nanjing.
1866, Mawei Shipping Bureau was established in Fuzhou.
1870, the General Bureau of Ordnance Machinery was established in Tianjin (later renamed Beiyang Machinery Manufacturing Bureau).
1872, China merchants ship was established in Shanghai; The first batch of overseas students sent by China officials went abroad, and they were selected under the guidance of Yung Wing.
1875, suggesting that all provinces set up foreign schools; Set up the item "westernization and enterprising" in the imperial examination.
1878, Lanzhou Weaving Bureau was established in Lanzhou, which is the earliest machine woolen mill in China.
1880, the machine weaving layout was established in Shanghai, which was the earliest machine cotton textile factory in China. In the same year, Shi Jing School was established in Tianjin to buy warships; Set up a north-south telegraph office.
188 1 year, Kaiping Mining Bureau was established.
1882, Lushun military port was established.
1885, the Qing government established a new naval yamen; Established the Army Ordnance School in Tianjin.
1890, Hubei Gun Factory was established in Hanyang; In Hubei and Jiangxi, Hanyeping Coal and Iron Plant and Mining Company were established.
Of course, these are not all the contents of the Westernization Movement, but only some of the most important and representative contents. In fact, there were many smaller factories and mines at that time.
Anqing internal ordnance research institute
186 1 year, Zeng Guofan established a military industry in Anqing to manufacture modern weapons, which was also the first military industry founded by the Westernization School imitating western weapons. Mainly manufacturing bullets, gunpowder, blasting guns, etc. "Interior" refers to the setting of Anqing Army to which this ordnance belongs. 1864, after the Xiang army captured Nanjing, the factory was moved from Anqing to Nanjing and renamed Jinling Machinery Manufacturing Bureau.
Jiangnan manufacturing bureau
Also known as Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, it was founded by Li Hongzhang in Shanghai on 1865. /kloc-moved from Hongkou to Gaochang Temple in 0/867. After continuous expansion, it became the largest military industry of the Qing government. The technology and mechanical equipment of this factory mainly depend on foreign countries. Besides making guns and ammunition, it also makes machines and ships. /kloc-in 0/905, the shipbuilding part became independent and was called "Jiangnan Wharf", and the arsenal part was called Manufacturing Bureau. Later, it was renamed Jiangnan Shipyard and Shanghai Arsenal respectively.
Fuzhou navigational affairs management bureau
Fuzhou Shipping Bureau is the most well-equipped new shipyard operated by the Qing government. 1866 was founded by Zuo in Mawei, Fuzhou. Hire foreigners as technicians. Mainly composed of iron works, docks and schools, it was seriously damaged in the 1884 Mawei naval battle. Although it has recovered, it is not as good as before. After the Revolution of 1911, it was renamed the Naval Shipyard.
Hanyang iron works
1In the spring of 889, Zhang Zhidong, Governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, planned to establish an ironmaking plant in Guangzhou. In the same year, he was transferred to the governor of Huguang, and the ironworks moved to Hanyang. 1890 Construction started under Dabie Mountain. 1893 Hanyang Iron Works was basically completed, with six large factories, four small factories and two ironmaking furnaces. 1894 was put into production, and it was all official at the beginning. From preparation to 1895, * * * spent more than 5.8 million. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1896, the Qing government was unable to raise funds, so it was changed to "official supervision and commercial office" in 1896. On the eve of the Revolution of 1911, Hanyang Iron Works had about 3,000 workers with an annual output of 70,000 tons. During the period of War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, some equipment of Hanyang Iron Works was moved to Chongqing by the Kuomintang government and Dadukou Iron and Steel Works was established. After liberation, it belongs to the people.
Ship investment promotion bureau
Referred to as "China Merchants". The earliest shipping enterprise established in China. 1872 (11th year of Tongzhi in Qing Dynasty) Li Hongzhang was invited to organize. 1873 1 holds. The General Administration is located in Shanghai, with branches in Yantai, Hankou, Tianjin, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Yokohama, Kobe, Luzon and Singapore. 1885 (in the 11th year of Guangxu) was changed to official supervision and commercial office. 1909 (Xuantongyuannian) is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. 19 12 was changed to commercial office, renamed as Commercial China Merchants Steamship Company, and later renamed as Commercial China Merchants Steamship Co., Ltd. 1932, the Kuomintang government was nationalized and renamed as State-owned China Merchants Bureau, which was under the Ministry of Communications. During the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression period, the General Administration moved to Hongkong first and then to Chongqing. Moved back to Shanghai after the war. 1947 * * has 460 ships, exceeding 330,000 tons. China merchants steamship co., ltd was established in 1948. 195 1 changed its name to China People's Steamship Corporation, and Hong Kong still retains its old name. China merchants group co., ltd was established in 1985.
Tianjin machine building bureau
1872, Li Hongzhang established China Merchants Shipping Company, which was the first modern shipping company in China and the first private enterprise founded by Westernization School. When it was founded, it bought three ships, arrived at 1877, and bought Meiqichang Shipping Company, with more than 30 ships, forming a powerful merchant fleet.
China Navy's new warship "Chen Nan"
Beiyang navy is the best. 1888, beiyang fleet was formally established, with 25 warships and more than 4,000 officers and men, with Ding, the general of Huai Army, as the prefect. At the same time, two naval bases, Lushunkou and Ahava, were completed, and the construction of the whole Beiyang coastal defense system was declared complete. Li Hongzhang proudly said: Beiyang Navy has a "strong momentum" ... it can be stationed in Liaoning and Bohai, and it can also be supported in other places, supplemented by the stationing of various artillery companies, which is enough to defend Gyeonggi. "
In order to meet the needs of the Westernization Movement, the Westernization School also held some new schools, such as Shi Jing Wentong Museum and Fuzhou Ship Administration School, to train translators, military personnel and scientific and technological personnel. First, several groups of international students were sent abroad for further study.
Establishment of Wentong Museum
People who have been engaged in translation for a long time in the history of our country, but the formal establishment of foreign language schools was not until the Qing government 1862 that the Wentong Museum was established in Beijing. When the Qing government signed the treaty of nanking, Tianjin Treaty and Beijing Treaty with foreign countries, even China people who knew foreign languages could not be found, and they were deceived by the invaders.
186 1 year? Please set up a foreign language school to train foreign language talents and diplomatic talents. 1862 August, Emperor Tongzhi officially approved the establishment of "Shi Jing Wentong Pavilion". Besides Chinese, students mainly study foreign languages. There are foreign teachers, such as Paul Teng in Britain, Smile and Billigan in France, Berlin in Russia, Ding Weiliang in the United States, John Flair and Harrington. Ding Weiliang served as head teacher from 1869, and was in charge of education affairs for 30 years. Hurd, the chief tax official, also serves as an inspector, actually controlling the power of funds and personnel.
Wentong Library is completely managed by regular schools, and English Library, Russian Library, German Library and Oriental (Japanese) Library are opened one after another. Only the children of the Eight Banners under the age of 13 and 14 will be recruited, and then Manchu students aged 15-25 and Manchu students of any age will be recruited. The study period is initially set at 3 years, which is divided into two types according to 1876: one is students of foreign languages, astronomy, chemistry, geodesy and other disciplines, with an academic system of 8 years; First, older students who study astronomy, chemistry, geodesy and other disciplines only by Chinese translation have a five-year academic system. 1867 added mathematics, chemistry, international law, medical physiology, astronomy, physics, foreign history and geography. The maximum number of students is 120. Most of the graduates are translators, diplomats and officials of other westernization agencies of the Qing government. There is a printing factory that translates and prints books on the public law of nations and mathematics, physics, literature and history. 1902 wentong museum merged into Shi Jing university hall.
[Edit this paragraph] Cause, result and nature of the fault.
Reason for failure:
At that time, the failure of the Westernization Movement in China was inevitable. First, the Westernization School tried to use some advantages of western capitalism to maintain feudal autocracy without touching the decadent feudal system. The contradiction between this means and the foundation makes the Westernization Movement doomed to be impossible. At the same time, the Westernization Movement was obstructed and destroyed by die-hards all over the country, which increased the resistance to the development of the Westernization Movement. Second, the class limitations of the Westernization School itself determine that they are not only the founders and operators of modern industry, but also their destroyers and destroyers. Their feudal yamen and bureaucratic system will inevitably lead to the failure of westernization enterprises. Third, one of the purposes of the Westernization Movement is to resist foreign aggression. However, when conducting diplomatic activities, the Westernization School insisted on "harmony but difference" and surrendered to foreign countries. The modern enterprises they founded have the function of resisting foreign aggression and benefiting people, but they can't change the semi-colonial and semi-feudal social status of China. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the goals of "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" advertised by the Westernization School failed to be realized, and the Westernization Movement basically failed.
Westernization school advocates "middle school as the body, western learning for use", hoping to maintain feudal rule with advanced technology, and the reform will not touch the feudal system. Because the reform only absorbs advanced western technology and does not learn advanced western technology, it is bound to fail.
Results:
The purpose of Westernization Movement was to maintain the rule of Qing Dynasty, but it failed to make China prosperous, save the fate of failure in foreign wars and prevent the semi-colonization of China society. However, it introduced the machinery industry of western capitalist countries, trained a number of scientific and technical personnel and skilled workers, objectively stimulated the emergence and development of capitalism in China, resisted the expansion of foreign economic forces, and promoted the process of modernization in China.
Nature:
The nature of Westernization Movement is the self-help movement of the ruling class from top to bottom.
[Edit this paragraph] Evaluation of Westernization Movement
When the Westernization School set up modern industries, it put "calming China" and "opposing foreign countries" together. The former reflects the domestic class contradiction, while the latter reflects the contradiction between the Qing rulers and foreign invaders. However, after the Second Opium War, when the corrupt rulers of the Qing Dynasty had frequent "internal troubles and foreign invasion", the Westernization School could only rely on the western powers to jointly suppress the people and maintain the crumbling regime. Therefore, the result of the practice of Westernization Movement is bound to deny "foreign enemies". If the Westernization Movement is a reform, it can only be a "reform" in a semi-colonial direction. All the great powers are willing to support westernization, which is proof. Li Hongzhang said that the Huai army had the confidence to win when it met "bandits from the mainland", and it was "unclear whether it would win or lose" when it met foreign enemies. Ding Richang, an official of the Westernization School, said that his naval gun "can prevent bandits in the town, but not foreign invasion". The Westernization Movement has been going on for 30 years, but it has not made China rich. On the contrary, it has made the first generation of warlord groups in China rich under the slogan of "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth".
The Westernization School subjectively didn't want capitalism to appear in China. Even when the civil industry was founded, it was repeatedly said that similar private enterprises were not allowed, which hindered the emergence of capitalism to some extent. However, under the feudal system in China, the Westernization School introduced a new productive force, advanced western science and technology, which was incompatible with the feudal relations of production, objectively and inevitably accelerated the disintegration of the feudal relations of production, thus stimulating the emergence of Chinese national capitalism, which was independent of the subjective will of the Westernization School. In order to solve the problem of funds, the Westernization School set up civilian industries, and adopted the methods of "official supervision and business operation" and "official-business joint operation" to absorb private capital. This "commercial stock" part is the factor of national capitalism. Since the 1970s, a group of bureaucrats, landlords and businessmen have directly invested in modern civilian industries, which has finally enabled China to have a little advanced production capacity, promoted the emergence of national capitalism, and also promoted the emergence of the bourgeoisie and the growth of the proletariat. In fact, the Westernization Movement was a complete failure. It did not lead China to capitalism, but only to maintain the corrupt rule of the crumbling Manchu government. It is precisely because of this class limitation that the Westernization Movement finally failed completely.
In addition, the argument between the Westernization School and the die-hards and their incomplete criticism of the die-hards have shaken the absolute authority of adhering to the tradition of ancestral training and standardizing the famous religion to a certain extent, and opened up a good atmosphere for learning from the West. Westernization School has translated many foreign scientific and technological books, sent overseas students of different ages and qualifications, trained a group of diplomatic and scientific talents, and introduced western social science knowledge, which also played a pioneering role in promoting the spread of democratic ideas. On this basis, in the 1970s and 1980s of 19, a group of early bourgeois reformists in China were separated from the westernization bureaucrats.
Finally, the establishment of Westernization civil industry partially resisted the expansion of foreign economic forces. For example, in 1872, Li Hongzhang founded the Steamship Merchants Bureau, so that "the benefits of Neijiang offshore will not be taken up by foreigners". For more than three years, the loss of foreign ships was13 million, and the American flag company was returned to the well by China merchants because it was unbearable. After the opening-up of the official textile layout in Hubei Province, the import of foreign fabrics in Jianghan Customs decreased by more than 100,000 pieces every year. China's capital can beat foreign businessmen, which was once considered as "original".
The purpose of the Westernization Movement was to maintain the rule of the Qing Dynasty and to save the failed feudal rulers. It didn't make China rich and strong, but it introduced western advanced technology, which made the first batch of modern enterprises appear in China, accumulated technical strength for modern enterprises in China and opened the way for the modernization of China.
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