Luo Qinshun (1465 ~ 1547)
China was a thinker of the Ming Dynasty. Words are allowed to rise, and the number is integer. Taihe (now Jiangxi) people. Jinshi He served as editor of Hanlin, secretary of Nanjing imperial academy, right assistant minister of Nanjing official department, left assistant minister, and minister of Nanjing official department. After resigning, he took up writing. On the relationship between reason and qi, he thinks that reason lies in qi, which is the source of all things. He gave his own explanation to Zhu's viewpoint of "one reason is different", and thought that after everything was created by Qi, one reason was divided into different reasons, which was a book with different reasons. Taiji is a general term for many principles, but it is based on qi. In the relationship between mind and matter, mind is regarded as a cognitive organ and a thing. The mind can "infer the number of things and know the reason of things", but it can't "set the world". In sexual relations, he disagreed with the distinction between the nature of destiny and the nature of temperament, and thought that there was only one kind of sex, that is, the principle of qi. He criticized the viewpoint of preserving justice and destroying people's desires, and advocated the unity of reason and desire to abstain from desire. However, he accepted the view that sex is reason, and admitted reason in his heart, that is, the nature of benevolence, righteousness, courtesy and wisdom. He is the author of Puzzled Stories, Stories of the Whole Temple and Continued Manuscripts of the Whole Temple. A thinker between Neo-Confucianism and Qi. )
Wang Tingxiang (1474 ~ 1544)
China was a thinker of the Ming Dynasty. Zi Ziheng, named Jun Chuan. Yifeng, Henan (now Lankao, Henan) was born. Jinshi He used to be a military attache, a judge in Bozhou, a censor, a minister of war in Nanjing, and a censor in Zuodu, Duchayuan. Philosophically, he advocated "the theory of vitality". It is believed that primary energy is the ontology of the universe. The universe is not "silent", but an "endless" dynamic process. In epistemology, it advocates "both knowing and doing", emphasizes "practice" and pursues "true knowledge". In the view of history, it is believed that history is evolutionary and heaven and man are one. Politically, we advocate change, develop social production, and restrain the mighty. His thought is an important link in the development from Zhang Zai to Wang Fuzhi, and it has a certain position in the history of philosophy. He is the author of Wang Ji and Wang Junchuan. There is Selected Works of Wang Tingxiang's Philosophy published by Zhonghua Book Company. Wang Tingxiang inherited the materialistic thoughts of Wang Chong, Fan Zhen and others, absorbed the essence of the philosophical thoughts of Confucius and Zhu, and became one of the shining materialistic philosophers in the history of China philosophy.
Wang Tingxiang is very good at studying Confucian classics, and has made many criticisms on the arguments of some Confucian scholars, especially Neo-Confucianism, and published his own independent opinions. He is also very good at natural science, and has also contributed to astronomy and geography. He talks about agriculture and writes about temperament.
Wang Tingxiang is a materialist thinker. He believes that "Qi" is the origin of the world and "Qi" is immortal. Only when there is "qi" can there be "reason" What he called "Qi" is matter,
This is contrary to the idealistic worldview of Song Confucianism that "this is the only reason before heaven and earth". He opposed mysterious superstition and theocracy, and emphasized the idea that "man can conquer nature". Wang Tingxiang believes that "asexual and lifeless" means being born with sex. He denied the so-called "sexual nature" invented by some Confucianism except Qi, and disapproved.
Transcendentalism of "Good Nature" and "Evil Nature" He supported Kong Qiu's view that "although sex is similar, learning from each other is far away" and advocated that "sex becomes learning". Therefore, he advocates that children should form good habits from childhood, not keep them at home, let them contact with social reality and broaden their "knowledge". Wang Tingxiang attached great importance to "knowledge of knowledge" and strongly opposed the so-called "knowledge of virtue" of Song Confucianism and "to conscience" of Wang Shouren. He thinks that knowledge is
The product of the combination of "thinking" and "seeing". It is "true knowledge" to ask for practice in practice, and it is against empty and useless lectures and reading in learning. He demanded that "learning" and "thinking" should not be neglected, and "speaking" and "practicing" should be carried out simultaneously. He requires not only the combination of "thinking" and "learning", but also the combination of "thinking" and "doing". Therefore, he put "thinking" in a particularly important position in the learning process. He believes that there are two ways to learn, namely "knowing" and "doing", both of which are superior, and it is necessary to "know and do at the same time" to achieve the goal.
With regard to moral cultivation, according to his materialistic epistemology, Wang Tingxiang put forward the method of opposing the emphasis on introspection and rest, and advocated the method of observing internal and external affairs, combining dynamic and static, being guilty and harmonious, and advancing with the times. He called those who cling to old knowledge, can't keep pace with the times and are unreasonable "shallow" and those who flatter the country regardless of the national plan "despicable". Such a person cannot be appointed. He advocated starting from self-denial and gradually achieving no desire and no self, in order to achieve "great harmony." In addition, you should always make up for your migration and make yourself brand-new. Let everything be in its proper place. This is "benevolence".
Gu (16 13 ~ 1682)
A materialist thinker in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties. The word Ning Ren, No.,is from Kunshan, Jiangsu. In his youth, he joined the Restoration Society, which criticized the disadvantages of the late Ming Dynasty. When the Qing soldiers went south, they mobilized troops to resist the Qing army. Gu's academic achievements are manifold. He inherited the tradition of China and ancient naive materialism, criticized Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties, and put forward the famous proposition that Confucian classics is Neo-Confucianism. His legal thought also echoed the progressive social trend of thought at that time, with the color of opposing absolutism. In view of the bad style of study of scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty, he advocated reading, being pragmatic and applying what he had learned, and linked academic research with solving social problems. He is the author of Disease Records of Countries and Counties in the World, Japanese Knowledge Records, Five Books of Phonology, and Poems of Lin Ting.
Under the historical conditions of social unrest in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, Gu realized that feudal rule was on the verge of crisis, so he opposed Gu Ni's invariability and stubbornness, and pointed out that the laws formulated by predecessors could not predict the development of the situation, which had long been a "land of flexibility", and future generations, such as "sticking to the old chapter" and "sticking to its unchangeable name", would certainly form "great disadvantages". In order to adapt to the trend of "having to change", he put forward a series of social reform programs, such as reforming taxes, limiting land rent, implementing equal land system and reclaiming land; Reform the monarchy and replace it with bureaucratic rule; Cancel stereotyped writing system, implement county recommendation, and so on. Although he also called for "learning from the past", he intended to help the past and serve the current reform.
Gu's democratic nature of legal thought is an attack on feudal autocratic legal system. He thinks that "the law is forbidden" is "the throne cannot be abolished", but he opposes ruling the people with harsh laws, pointing out that the main drawback of authoritarian legal system is that "the laws and regulations are increasingly complicated and the tools are increasingly dense". He said: "Man is the king of the world and cannot rule by himself. It is very complicated for one person to rule, and it is difficult for others to rule. " He quoted Qin Shihuang's history that "betrayal and lies are constantly emerging" ... as for depression, he explained that "anything in the world can be prevented as long as it is illegal." What he called "pluralistic co-governance" is not "to make the world rich with the strength of the world", but to expand the power of counties to maintain order, so as to check and balance the monarchy and limit its abuse.
From the standpoint of opposing feudal autocracy and legal system, Gu believed that everything would be "useless and used", thus limiting the display of human talents and making "human intelligence considerations cannot come from agreements", although heroes will also be attributed to cowardice. Therefore, "the lawmaker corrupts talents"; Not only that, the complicated laws and regulations only make it easy for officials and deceived people to "take the law as the market" and rely on complicated lawsuits and harsh penalties to extort money from the people and become folk tigers. Therefore, "the more complicated the law, the more disadvantages it has" and "the more prohibited the law, the more interesting it is." In order to rectify the bureaucracy, he advocated severely punishing corrupt officials and not taking guilt as a benevolent policy; It is suggested to abolish the tradition of petty officials' "making laws by cases" and "making laws by cases".
In view of the situation that "the law is useless", Gu stressed that only "the right mind and the right customs" are the key to controlling chaos and the foundation of building the country. He said that the rule of Kawachinoayanofumi's scenery was the result of filial piety guiding the people and "changing customs and customs to make the people mellow". If we don't start from the roots and take the law as a ban, it will inevitably lead to "failure, corruption, the less grievances the poor have, the more successful the traitors will be", so it is a foolish behavior. In order to change customs and give full play to the educational role of feudal discipline, Gu advocated "talking clearly" and "discussing the church and state customs if there are imperfections". Gu also opposed the system of "atoning for sins with money" and "supplementing officials with grain", believing that this system was only beneficial to the rich and played an immoral role.
Huang Zongxi (16 10 ~ 1695)
A materialist thinker in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties. The word Taichong, named Nanlei, is called Mr. Lizhou, a native of Yuyao, Zhejiang. Qing soldiers went south, persisted in the anti-Qing struggle for more than ten years, and then wrote in seclusion. Repeatedly rejected the recruitment of the Qing government. He is well-versed in classics and history, and is famous far and near, especially for lashing feudal absolutism. His legal thought also runs through the spirit of criticizing the autocratic legal system. He is the author of Wen Ding of Nanlei, Wen Yue of Nanlei, A Case Study of Song and Yuan Dynasties, A Case Study of Confucianism in Ming Dynasty, A Record of Ming Yi to be Visited, etc. The book "Ming Yi to be Visited" is the product of Huang Zongxi's ideological summary of the lessons of the demise of the Ming Dynasty, which sharply attacked the feudal monarchy. In the process of criticizing the old world, the glory of democracy is dim. It is not only enlightening to the ideological circles in the early Qing Dynasty, but also a denunciation of feudal autocracy by the bourgeois reformists more than 200 years later.
Huang Zongxi lived in an era of great turmoil in the late feudal society of China. The germination of capitalism and the introduction of western scientific and technological knowledge had a great influence on his economic, political and legal thoughts. On the basis of summing up historical experience and lessons, he began to get rid of the shackles of the inherent concept of orthodoxy, eliminate the mysticism of divine right of monarchy, and demonstrate the origin and essence of monarchy with the views of "benefit" and "harm" He praised Yao Shun's world of "the world is dominant and the monarch is the guest" and criticized the world of "the monarch is dominant and the world is the guest". Condemning the country as a private property inherited by the monarch for generations. Publicly declare that "it is the gentleman who is the great harm in the world." In view of the feudal dogma that the monarch is a minister, he expounded the equal relationship between the monarch and the minister. The minister's duty is "for the world, not for you; For all, not for a surname ",and the world is by no means a monarch can cure, only the monarch and the people can cure.
Huang Zongxi advocated that the school should become a deliberative organ with the function of "judging right from wrong", and imperial academy could face the monarch's "political lack" and make him "dare not judge right from wrong, but only blame the school". Local scholars also have the right to correct the rope or condemn the political affairs of the county magistrate. The discussion in the school reflected the desire of feudal scholar-officials to participate in political power.
Huang Zongxi proposed replacing "the law of one family" with "the law of the world". The so-called "the law of the world" refers to the laws of Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Because the law in the world focuses on the education of people all over the world, "it has never been established for itself", so "the more sparse the law is, the more chaotic it is". Until three generations ago, the laws were all based on the monarch's surname "lust", and there was no "one family law" with "ten cents as the heart of the world". Therefore, "the more secret the law is, the chaos in the world is born in the law", which is "illegal law". Huang Zongxi divided three generations of laws according to "public" and "private", revealing that the law of class society originated from private, which is valuable. He criticized the monarch's "one family law" and put forward that "one family law" should be used instead of "one family law" hidden in a surname "basket", which not only criticized the feudal autocratic legal system, but also expressed the demands of small and medium-sized landlords and industrial and commercial citizens for legal rights. In his view, because the monarch legislates for private purposes, the laws he makes will inevitably harm the interests of people all over the world. Therefore, even the legislation enacted by the founding monarch is not sacred and unchangeable. He criticized the Song and Ming Neo-Confucians who flaunted "abiding by the law and not breaking the law" and "the ancestors obeyed the monarch" but did not know how to reform, and were not worthy of being "vulgar Confucianism". In order to demonstrate the rationality of "the law of one generation has one generation", Huang Zongxi briefly expounded the "changes from ancient times to modern times" in historical development since Qin Dynasty, and emphasized that legislators should "think far and see deeply, and change things one by one" according to the current situation, and should not deal with "illegal laws". These discourses endow the progressive viewpoint of "rule of law and time" with the significance of opposing absolutism.
Huang Zongxi also opposed the traditional view of defending feudal monarchy, that is, "there are people who can govern but can't" and "the chaos in the world can exist without law". He believes that even if someone can govern the country, they can't display their talents without violating the monarch's "one family law". Although there are measures to promote social progress, it is difficult to achieve results. Therefore, he stressed that the law is more important than the people. "There is a rule of law and then someone governs." With good laws, supplemented by "people who can govern" to enforce the law, they will complement each other. "Everything is possible." Even if the person is not right, he will not be "trapped" because of the legal constraints, harming others and harming himself.
In order to establish "the law of the world" and implement the rule of law (see Legalists), Huang Zongxi called for the elimination of petty officials' stealing power to get rid of the drawbacks of the law, pointing out that petty officials "made a network of words to help their private interests." Today, the rules and regulations of all facilities come from the government. It is based on the law of the world, and there is no law of the court. He advocated selecting petty officials in charge of books in the central and local governments as Jinshi, Zi and his disciples. At the grassroots level, small officials are abolished and farmers take turns to be officers, so as to establish a judicial system that can "justly" enforce the law.
Huang Zongxi's thought of rule of law is a summary of the historical experience of how to govern the country in feudal times, and it is also aimed at the autocratic monarchy, arbitrary eunuch and lax law and discipline in the late Ming Dynasty. He hoped to restrict the privileges of emperors, nobles and bureaucrats through laws, showing a certain constitutional monarchy.
The main works in history are: Confucianism in Ming Dynasty, Studies of Song and Yuan Dynasties (unfinished, continued by Hundred Scholars and Quan), History of Ming Dynasty (not seen so far), Wen Minghai, Records of the History of Ming Dynasty to be Visited, Records of Traveling to the North, Today's Water Classic, Deduction from Dali, and History of Ming Dynasty. The epitaph and biographical articles recorded in his anthology also involve temporary historical events, which can make up for the shortcomings of history books.
Fang Yizhi (1611~1671)
Thinkers and politicians in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Cimi, also known as Man Gong, Long Mian Fool, Master Yuan Ze, Fushan Fool, Mi, Shanren, Fool, Jiangbei Scholar, etc. Tongcheng (now Anhui) people. When I was a child, I participated in community activities, and I was called the four sons of Ming Dynasty with Wu and Wu. In the thirteenth year of Chongzhen (1640), he was a scholar and was awarded a review. Fang Kongying, governor of Huguang, was jealous of Yang Sichang and sent to prison, but he walked on his knees and complained bitterly. In the second year, he became an official of the Ministry of Industry, and in fifteen years, he became an official of Wang Ding. In the seventeenth year, Li Zicheng entered Beijing, and Zhi cried into the funeral palace. He was arrested in Donghuamen, where he was punished and tried to escape. In the Southern Ming Dynasty, he moved to Lingbiao and changed his name to Wu Shigong, selling medicines in the market. In the third year of Shunzhi (1646), Zhu Youlang and Wang Gui proclaimed themselves emperors in Zhaoqing. He was praised by Qu's family and given a banquet by the Hanlin Bachelor. The following year, I went to Wuzhou from Wang Gui to pay homage to Assistant Minister of Ritual Department and University of Dongge, and left with the crown. Wandering in Lingnan, Pingle was held hostage by the Qing army and unyielding. I heard that he was a monk, and changed his name to Dazhi, with the words "nothing, medicine land, floating house", and other nicknames: Hongzhi, Medicine Tour Old Man, Floating Fool, Extreme Pill Scholar, etc. In the tenth year of Kangxi (167 1), he died in Ji 'an.
Fang Yizhi, as one of the leaders of Fu She Society, prided himself on being honest and studious all his life. He has a wide range of knowledge, such as astronomy, geography, music, rhythm, voice, writing, calligraphy and painting, medicine and technical courage, all of which can test his origin and analyze his purport. Conceit should melt the knowledge of ancient and modern China and foreign countries into one furnace and invent the eternal truth. The book Everything puts forward the proposition of "one and two, two and one", which summarizes the contradiction and contradictory movement of things. It not only points out that "the world is ancient and modern" and "the corresponding people are extremely opposed", but also emphasizes that "two rooms are one" and that everything is "mutually exclusive". He also advocates that "there is no heaven and earth, there is glass first; People have wine glasses, and things have wine glasses. "Materialism, broke the theological creationism. In his physical novels, he also pointed out that "the sky is constantly moving and life is constantly interacting, which is all caused by fire", indicating that the basic view of his world outlook is monism of fire. However, there is also a recycling theory hidden in his thoughts. He can't get rid of the conservative natural science system, so it is difficult to get rid of the shackles of the metaphysical "time-time" theory. Although there are different opinions on him in academic circles at present, he is still a philosopher with progressive social thoughts and materialistic views during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. His works are very rich, including Bo Yi Ji, Fu Shan Wen Ji, Tong Ya, Ding Ben, Xiao Zhi of physics and Yu Cao of Fang.
Fuzhi Wang (16 19 ~ 1692)
A materialist thinker in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties. Zi Nong,no. Jiang Zhai, is known as Mr. Chuanshan and is from Hengyang, Hunan. When I was young, I joined Fu She (see Gu) and demanded reform. 1648, the Qing soldiers invaded Hengzhou, and Wang Fuzhi turned against the Qing Dynasty. After his failure, he joined the government of the Ghost King. Being excluded, he left angrily and lived in seclusion in a bare cave for a long time, engaged in writing. Under extremely difficult conditions, he completed Zhouyi Zhuan, Zhang Zizheng Zhu Meng, Shangshu Hangyi, Nightmare, Huangshu, Zi Zhi Tong Jian and other works. Although his legal thoughts are scattered in Hao Han's works, there is no special chapter and lack of systematicness, but they are rich in content and many conclusions are of summary significance. Because his academic thought was "unique", which was the reaction of the dominant official philosophy at that time, his works were banned until the middle of19th century.
According to the evolutionary view of history, Wang Fuzhi criticized the conservative ideological trend of "Fazu follows the king" and "He can't follow the old rules and start over", and demonstrated the variability of law. He believes that "there are theorems in the world, but there is no fixed law", and the prosperity, abolition and simplification of laws need to be adapted to the times, so there is no fixed law in the world. He used history as an example to show that when people are confined to legal rules and don't know how to follow changes, they will "make a mess of the world"
From the perspective of summing up historical experience, this paper puts forward the importance of law to governing the country. He said: "It is better not to cure the crack of Tao." Especially when "the world is falling apart and the law is not investigated". The function of law is to punish evil and promote good. As for the details of the legal content, it depends on the situation. He advocated that "at the beginning of the founding of the People's Republic of China, the law would be unknown." But on the whole, he opposes severe punishment and severe law, advocates that the law is simple and the punishment is light, and emphasizes that "the law is expensive and simple, but it can be banned and the punishment is expensive and light." The so-called "Jane" is based on the outlined and slightly detailed law as the legislative principle, which is convenient for the public to observe and the officials to examine. In view of the long-standing shortcomings of the autocratic system that the monarch takes the will as the law and the law varies from person to person, Wang Fuzhi insists that the law must be uniformly applied in order to have authority and make the world fear. He said: "In addition to the complexity of the law and the crime of strict omission, the law of applying for drawing one can reduce the number of offenders from 1000 to 11." Otherwise, things are different from laws and have different weights, which will inevitably lead to the phenomenon of "looking at the past, grasping each other, relying on each other and covering up the traitor", although it is impossible to rule the world by law. The so-called "lightness" means opposing indiscriminate punishment. He condemned that "anyone who is an official must put instruments of torture", but he just took this opportunity to "get angry, Zhang Qiwei, and even threaten the people to take their goods." This exposure touched the essence of feudal justice. However, Wang Fuzhi is not completely opposed to torture. He believes that since the law has customized the stick, it can also be used to punish. As for "pinching fingers at joints is a last resort and used for stealing", it cannot be abused by the people. He also opposed the use of beheading, beheading and other death sentences, saying, "Owl, behead and kill", "What's more, the deceased is only for the descendants of sinners, or those who can know benevolence and filial piety, and cannot be accommodated between heaven and earth ... without the benefits brought by weathering".
Although Wang Fuzhi attaches importance to the role of law in governing the country, he believes that if people lose the heart of "feeling ashamed of themselves", even if there are severe laws and penalties, they cannot ban evil. Therefore, he advocated the combination of law and education, that is, the so-called "arbitrary law" and "arbitrary way". He expounded the traditional Confucian thought that "virtue is the mainstay of punishment" and thought that "heaven and earth are full of vitality, punishment and morality are intertwined, and fortunes are mixed" and "law is all-encompassing, and law is all-encompassing". Therefore, we should pay more attention to feudal moral education. To this end, he proposed: at the beginning of legislation, "we always leave more virtues outside the law to make them lenient."