First-grade history: foreign policies and specific examples of Tang, Ming and Qing dynasties?

During the Tang Dynasty, there were more than 70 countries that made good friends with the Tang Dynasty. The rulers of the Tang Dynasty often sent envoys and monks to visit and study abroad. Among them, Xuanzang, Jian Zhen and others have made great contributions to cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. Many countries in Asia and Africa also sent envoys to visit and study in the Tang Dynasty. There were a large number of foreign students in imperial academy in the Tang Dynasty. Among the Tang government agencies, there were foreigners such as Ma Lu from Abe. Businessmen coming and going from home and abroad are in an endless stream. The Tang government set up crack hon temple to receive foreign envoys and guests, set up business halls in many places to entertain foreign businessmen, and set up mutual market supervision and trading companies to take charge of foreign trade. Chang 'an, Luoyang, Yangzhou and Guangzhou were important foreign trade cities in the Tang Dynasty. Among them, Chang 'an is the most famous. Chang 'an has gathered many foreign guests, and many foreign businessmen have run shops and lived in Xi Shi for a long time, which has promoted economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. From Hongwu (1368- 1398) to Jiajing (1552 ~ 1566), the Ming government banned the sea several times (relaxed after 1567). After the 1940s, 15 stopped going to the west, that is, sailing at sea, focusing on the north, while on the southeast coast, it was from beginning to end. There are objective reasons for this change. (1) Since the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, Tatar, Wala and other ethnic groups felt the pressure, so the Great Wall was continuously built from Hongwu period to Wanli period (1573 ~ 16 19). With the growing power of northern minorities in the15 ~16th century, the pressure on the northern border is increasing. (2) The looting and smuggling activities of Japanese pirate groups (Japanese pirates) along the coast of China became more and more serious from the14th century, and reached a rampant level in the16th century in the 1920s and 1950s. The Ming government strengthened the coastal defense from Shandong to Guangdong. (3) The western Portuguese came to the coastal areas of China for business and plunder in 15 14 (the ninth year of Zheng De in Ming Dynasty). 1535 also occupied Macao (1564 was approved by the China authorities and became a leased land). Later, the Spanish and Dutch also came to China. The Dutch occupied Penghu and Taiwan Province Province twice in 1604, 1622 and 1624. First, the Ming government contracted in the southeast sea in order to concentrate its troops, financial resources and material resources to resist the invasion of northern minorities; Subsequently, in order to pacify the harassment of Japanese pirates from the East and colonists from the West, and prevent domestic anti-Ming people from colluding with foreign forces, the policy of "sea ban" was implemented. In addition to the government's own establishment of certain contacts with some overseas countries or tribes, the coastal areas also prohibit ordinary businessmen from trading with foreign countries privately. In the early Qing Dynasty, in order to consolidate the ruling order and block the supply of materials by Zheng Chenggong and other maritime unrest forces, a maritime ban was issued on 1656, and businessmen were not allowed to trade in the sea. The offenders were executed and all the goods were confiscated. Later, many orders were issued that "nothing is allowed to enter the water, and food and goods are not allowed to cross Xinjiang". 1683 (in the 22nd year of Kangxi), the Zheng family in Taiwan Province Province was eliminated, and the domestic situation was basically stable. 1684, customs offices were established in Guangzhou, Zhangzhou, Ningbo and Yuntai Mountain as trading ports. As a result, foreign trade has developed rapidly, and more than 1000 ships go to sea every year. Commodities that have been banned, such as grain, are exported in large quantities. Only the ships that went out to sea were sold, and some people who went out to sea did not go home. Fearing that people would gather at sea to make trouble, the Qing government reiterated the maritime ban in 17 1 1. 17 17 prohibits mainlanders from doing business in Nanyang and strictly guards foreign merchant ships trading in China. As a result of this policy, firstly, the government tax revenue is reduced, and secondly, people's livelihood in coastal areas is difficult. The ban is difficult to maintain and was abolished on 1727. After that, foreign trade developed again. /kloc-In the second half of the 0/8th century, British industry developed rapidly, and it was urgent to expand overseas markets. The number of businessmen who came to China for trade increased, and some pirates and unreasonable demands of these businessmen aroused the suspicion of the Qing government. Therefore, the foreign trade policy was adjusted. While the traditional tributary trade and the good-neighborly and friendly policy towards neighboring countries were still adopted on land, a series of strict restrictive measures were adopted for coastal trade: (1) restricting trading ports. 1757 (the 22nd year of Qianlong), the Qing government decided that only foreign businessmen were allowed to trade in Guangzhou, and the other three trading ports were closed. (two) the implementation of the "publicity system". From 65438 to 0720, China businessmen engaged in foreign trade in Guangzhou formed the "Public Bank". The Qing government granted it the right to monopolize foreign trade, underwrite foreign imports, buy goods for foreign investors and set import and export prices. 1760, the Qing government authorized the "public treasury" as an agency of the government to collect taxes from foreign businessmen, ensure the payment of taxes, contract and remit foreign bills and goods taxes, and control foreign businessmen. All the actions of foreign businessmen in Guangzhou are bound by them. All the negotiations between the Qing government and foreign businessmen were mediated by public banks, and foreign businessmen could not communicate directly with Qing officials. (3) Restrict the types and quantities of export commodities. Grain, hardware (gold, silver, copper, iron, lead), arms (nitrate) and books (history books, maps, etc. ) It is forbidden to export; Set export quotas for silk, tea and rhubarb. The Qing government's policy was aimed at the western capitalist colonialists, which played a certain role in self-defense for the sake of national security. The Qing government turned a blind eye and knew little about the world economic situation and its development trend. It doesn't know that people from the west have the dual identity of pirates and businessmen or the same person. It doesn't know the duality of Sino-Western relations in the new period (aggression and being invaded, advanced and backward). It is not good at dealing with new foreign affairs in the new international environment. It does not distinguish and combine opposing aggression, strengthening defense and developing foreign economic exchanges. It just adopted a passive self-enclosure. This policy has hindered the development of economy, science and technology and culture in China. The transition period of China from opening to closing is precisely the transition period of Western Europe from feudalism to capitalism, from handicraft production to big machine production, and from traditional society to modern society. At the beginning of this period, China was an advanced and powerful country in the world. At the end of this period, China lagged behind major European and American countries in a stage of social development. Closing the country to the outside world deprived China of the opportunity to keep pace with the western countries. Moreover, the "China consciousness" caused by the closed door made China lose the opportunity to catch up again for a period of time after the Opium War.