1. At present, there are about 1.5 million known animal species.
These animals can be divided into two categories: one is vertebrates, which have thorns in their bodies; The other is invertebrate, which has no spine in its body.
2. Biodiversity: 1, species diversity; 2. Diversity of living environment; 3. Diversity of exercise methods.
6. When it is difficult to do experiments directly with the research object, sometimes experiments are done with the model, that is, imitating the experimental object to do the model, or imitating some conditions of the experiment. Such an experiment is called a simulation experiment.
7. Various fins play an auxiliary and coordinating role in sports.
10, gill is not easy to absorb oxygen in the air. After the fish left the water, the gill filaments covered each other, which reduced the contact area with the air and could not get enough oxygen from the air, so they died of lack of oxygen.
18, crustaceans breathe through gills.
19, coelenterates, mollusks and crustaceans are invertebrates.
20. All kinds of creatures in water are an important part of aquatic ecosystem. They form a close and complicated connection through food chain and food web, and at the same time, they are all influenced by aquatic environment. The change of their species and the increase or decrease of their quantity will affect human life.
2 1. Compared with the water environment, the land environment is much more complicated. (1) is relatively dry; (2) The temperature difference between day and night is large; (3) Insufficient buoyancy in water; (4) gaseous oxygen; (5) The land environment is complex and changeable.
Annelids are not mollusks, annelids are invertebrates.
24. Animals whose bodies are composed of many similar annular segments are called annelids.
230. Compared with warm-blooded animals, warm-blooded animals are more adaptable to the environment and are conducive to normal metabolism.
33, front teeth-cut off the canine teeth of food-tear the molars of food-grind food.
36. The cecum is mainly used to digest fiber, and the cecum of herbivores is developed.
39. Mammals are the tallest animals, especially vertebrates. There are many kinds, about 4000 on the earth. Except for a few species, they all have the characteristics of body surface coat, viviparous and lactation. Other features: four cavities in the heart, breathing with lungs, constant body temperature, belonging to warm-blooded animals, with incisors, canines and molars.
There are more than 9000 kinds of birds in the world.
4 1, the shape of the bird is streamlined, which reduces the air resistance during flight.
42. Birds' feathers are divided into normal feathers and down feathers (with warm-keeping function). Normal feathers have quills and fan-shaped wings, which can increase the contact area with air and facilitate flight by flapping the air.
5 1. Insects are the most diverse animals, with more than 1 10,000 known species (accounting for 4/5 of the animal species). Insects have three pairs of feet and can crawl. Some insects' feet are specialized into jumping feet, which can jump; Most insects have wings and can fly. Insects are the only flying animals among invertebrates.
53. The significance of wings to the life and distribution of insects: it is beneficial to feed, avoid enemies, expand activities and distribution, and find places suitable for mating and spawning.
55. Insects are classified as arthropods. Besides insects, arthropods include spiders, centipedes, shrimps, crabs and so on. Their similarities are: their bodies are composed of many segments; There is an exoskeleton on the body surface; The foot and antenna are segmented.
56. Larvae live in water, breathe through gills, undergo metamorphosis, then live an amphibious life, breathe through lungs and breathe through skin. This animal is called amphibian.
57. The behavior of animals depends on a certain body structure.
60. People have 206 bones: skull, sternum, ribs (immobile) and trunk bones (semi-active).
Movable joints (joints) of limbs.
6 1, people have 26 vertebrae (semi-mobile bone connection)
62. Joint structure: joint head, joint capsule, joint cavity (with synovial fluid to make joint activities flexible), joint fossa, and joint cartilage (cushioning effect). Joint capsule. Joint head. Joint cavity. Articular cartilage. sucking disc
63. Joints act as fulcrums in motion and are the points around which bones rotate.
65. All vertebrates have joints.
69. Skeletal muscle has the characteristic of stimulated contraction.
70. Why does skeletal muscle affect bones: When skeletal muscle is stimulated and contracted by nerves, it will affect the movement of bones around joints, so the body will exercise.
7 1, the muscles connected with bones are always coordinated by two groups of muscles.
72. There are more than 600 skeletal muscles in the whole body. When the arm droops naturally, both biceps brachii and triceps brachii relax.
74. Of course, exercise is not completed only by the exercise system, it needs the control and adjustment of the nervous system and the supply of energy, so it also needs the cooperation of the digestive system, respiratory system and circulatory system.
76. Animals have various behaviors. From the way of acquiring behavior, animal behavior can be roughly divided into two categories. One is the innate behavior of animals, which is determined by the genetic material in animals, which is called congenital behavior; The other is the behavior obtained from life experience and learning through the role of environmental factors on the basis of genetic factors, which is called learning behavior.
79. The higher an animal is, the stronger its learning ability and the more it can adapt to the complex environment. Similarly, the more complex the environment, the more behaviors you need to learn.
80. Congenital behavior has great limitations. If a creature has only innate behavior but no learning behavior, then it will be eliminated naturally.
8 1, for a person, skill training and knowledge learning are adapted to the development stage of the brain, and it is difficult to make up once the critical period of learning is missed.
82. Social behavior characteristics: 1. Some organizations often form within groups; 2. Clear division of labor among members; 3. Grades have also been formed in some groups.
83. Groups are arranged in a hierarchical system according to their size, strength, health and ferocity.
85. Animals' movements, sounds and smells can all play the role of transmitting information.
86. The significance of social behavior to animal survival: It is often easier to get food and overcome the invasion of natural enemies by relying on the strength of groups, which can effectively ensure the reproduction of species, make groups better adapt to the environment and maintain the lives of individuals and races.
It is precisely because of the existence of material flow, energy flow and information flow that the relationship between organisms is complicated, and "one hair pulls one hair and moves the whole body", which makes organisms and the environment become a unified whole.
88. There are interdependent and mutually restrictive relationships between the food chain and various organisms in the food web. In an ecosystem, the number and proportion of various organisms are always maintained in a relatively stable state, which is called ecological balance.
The role of animals in nature: 1. Animals play an important role in maintaining ecological balance; 2. Animals can promote the material circulation of the ecosystem; 3. Help plants pollinate and spread seeds; 4. Biological control.
90. Biological control refers to the use of organisms to control pests and diseases. In addition to insect control, there are birds and bacteria.
92. In the ecosystem, the number and proportion of all kinds of organisms are always kept in a relatively stable state.
93. Using biology as a "workshop" to produce certain substances needed by human beings is a bioreactor.
94. Advantages of bioreactor: It can save the cost of building a factory building and purchasing instruments and equipment, and reduce complicated production procedures and environmental pollution.
95. Through careful observation and study of living things, imitating some structures and functions of living things and inventing various instruments and equipment is bionic.
96. A colony is an aggregate of bacteria or fungi that can be seen by the naked eye after reproduction.
98. Bacteria and fungi, as well as their different species, can be roughly distinguished from the morphology, size and color of colonies.
99. Colonies are often used as an important basis for strain identification.
10 1. Bacteria and fungi are widely distributed in the biosphere.
102. Bacteria and fungi also need certain conditions to survive. If you need moisture, suitable temperature, certain living space, organic matter.
103. It is impossible to have bacteria and fungi in a strict high-temperature mold environment.
105. All bacteria are unicellular organisms.
106. Some bacteria are interconnected in clusters or long chains, but each bacteria also lives independently.
108. Nutritional models are divided into autotrophic model and heterotrophic model. Both bacteria and fungi are heterotrophic models, which can be divided into saprophytic model and parasitic model.
1 10. Yeast is a unicellular fungus. Mould, edible fungi and macrofungi are all multicellular fungi.
1 12. There is no chloroplast in the cells of fungi, and spores can reproduce.
1 13. The yeast is sprouting.
1 14. Penicillium: The spores are turquoise and arranged in a broom shape. The nutritional mode is heterotrophic.
1 15. Aspergillus: spores are of various colors and arranged radially. The nutritional mode is heterotrophic.
1 16. The fungus that causes food mildew is mold.
1 18. the role of bacteria and fungi in nature: (1) participate in the material cycle; (2) Causing animal and plant diseases; (3) Causing animal diseases.
Most bacteria and fungi are decomposers in the ecosystem.
120. In the material cycle of nature, bacteria and fungi decompose the remains of animals and plants into carbon dioxide, water and inorganic salts, which can be absorbed and utilized by plants to make organic matter. It can be seen that bacteria and fungi play an important role in the circulation of carbon dioxide and other substances in nature.
122.*** Living together is interdependent and mutually beneficial. Once separated, neither of them can live independently. This phenomenon is called * * *. (once separated, you can live independently, called * * * habitat)
123. Parasitic (often harmful); * * * Health (mutual benefit).
125. Fermentation: anaerobic respiration of microorganisms (also known as respiration)
127. Some fungi can produce substances that kill some pathogenic bacteria. These substances are called antibiotics.
128. Scientists can also use modern technology to transfer some genes from other organisms to some bacteria, and only these bacteria can produce drugs (using bacteria as bioreactors).
129. 1928, British bacteriologist Fleming invented antibiotics.
130. Significance of biological classification: Understand and protect biodiversity, make the position of each species in biological classification clear at a glance, and further clarify the genetic relationship between organisms.
13 1. Biological classification mainly classifies organisms into species, genera and other levels according to their similarity (morphological structure, internal structure and physiological function). The basic unit of classification is species.
132. In angiosperms, flowers, fruits and seeds are often used as important basis for classification.
137. The internal form of biodiversity is the diversity of genes, and the external form is the diversity of species.
140. The destruction of polycentric ecosystem will lead to the loss of biodiversity and gene diversity.
142. The threat to biodiversity is caused by the change and destruction of (1) living environment; (2) Predatory exploitation and utilization; (3) environmental pollution; (4) Biological invasion.
143. In order to protect biodiversity, relevant laws include environmental protection law, marine environmental protection law, forest law, grassland law, fishery law, wildlife protection law, water and soil protection law, etc. (Add "People's Republic of China (PRC)" before each law)
144. The establishment of nature reserves is divided into in-situ protection and enclosure protection.
Davidia involucrata is an angiosperm. The silver cedar is a gymnosperm.
Chapter 15 Animal Movement
1, the movement of animals: it is of great significance to the survival of animals and the reproduction of races.
The habitat environment of animals can be roughly divided into three categories: water, land and air. It is a phenomenon that animals living in different environments adapt their sports to their living environment.
The introduction of aquatic animals includes paramecium, jellyfish, squid, frog and so on. The progress of fish mainly depends on the role of tail and trunk.
Water: the main way of animal movement: swimming (swimming)
Land: crawling, walking, running and jumping.
Crawling: such as snails, red deer, snakes (features: limbs can not support the body)
Walking: like cats, that's enough, elephants, horses. Remember: walking is not a unique way of exercise for human beings (you can walk and run).
Jumping (features: developed hind limbs) such as frogs, kangaroos, fleas, etc.
Air: Types of flying animals: birds, insects and bats (flying by wing membranes).
Note: Flying is not a unique way for birds.
The basic ways of bird flight: flapping wing flight and gliding (labor-saving way) (a pair of wings)
Insects generally have two pairs of wings (flying) (three pairs of feet-crawling, and some hind limbs are as developed as locusts and crickets and can jump;
Some larvae can swim when they are in water.
2, the formation of animal movement:
▲ The exercise system consists of three parts: skeleton, osseointegration and skeletal muscle. (Adjustment of nervous system and coordination with other systems)
▲ The movement system plays the role of support, protection and movement.
▲ Bone structure: including periosteum, bone and bone marrow.
▲ Periosteum contains blood vessels, nerves and osteoblasts, among which blood vessels provide nutrition for bones, and osteoblasts are related to bone length and fracture repair (bone length and thickness are related to regeneration).
▲ Bone includes dense bone and cancellous bone.
Bone mineral density: the bone tissue located in the peripheral part of the backbone is dense, hard and white, and has strong compression resistance;
Osteosarcoma: the bone tissue located at the inner side of the diaphysis and metaphyseal end, honeycomb (containing red bone marrow all one's life), red.
▲ Bone marrow: The bone marrow in the bone marrow cavity and cancellous bone in childhood is red bone marrow, which has hematopoietic function;
The red bone marrow in the bone marrow cavity is replaced by fat, which is called yellow bone marrow, temporarily losing hematopoietic function and restoring hematopoietic function under certain conditions;
Red bone marrow with lifelong hematopoietic function is located in cancellous bone.
▲ Bone growth includes two aspects: length and thickness.
Osteoblasts in the inner periosteum are related to the length and thickness of bone and the repair of fracture. The cells in the epiphyseal cartilage layer are related to the length of the bone.
About 99% of calcium in human body is deposited in bone tissue in the form of bone salt, and bone is the largest "calcium bank" in human body.
▲ Composition and characteristics of bones
Characteristics of organic and inorganic bones in the period
Children and adolescents 1/3 or more, less than 2/3, high elasticity, low hardness, not easy to fracture, easy to deform.
Adults account for about13, accounting for about 2/3, which is both hard and elastic.
Less than 1/3, older than 2/3, less elastic, easy to fracture.
The organic matter in bones is mainly collagen, which makes bones tough.
▲ Joint structure: (combined with graphic memory)
Articular head
The surface of the joint is covered with a layer of articular cartilage.
sucking disc
Joint capsule: It is composed of connective tissue.
Joint cavity: there is synovial fluid in it, which can reduce the friction between joint surfaces.
▲ Structural features that make joint movement flexible: the articular surface is covered with a layer of articular cartilage with smooth surface to buffer vibration and reduce friction during exercise. Synovial fluid in articular cavity can reduce the friction between articular surfaces.
▲ Structural features that make the joint firm: there is a joint capsule composed of connective tissue outside the joint head and joint fossa, and the ligament is strengthened.
▲ Every skeletal muscle is an organ, including tendon and muscle abdomen.
Tendon: composed of connective tissue, attached to adjacent bones respectively.
Abdominal muscle: It belongs to muscle tissue and is the contraction part of skeletal muscle, which contains blood vessels and nerves.
▲ bones:
There are 206 bones in the human body, and all the bones in the whole body are connected by bones to form bones.
▲ Physical exercise:
It is formed with bones as lever, joints as fulcrum and skeletal muscle contraction as power.
When skeletal muscle contracts, the traction bone moves around the joints, thus producing movement, which is completed under the control of the nervous system.
Skeletal muscles are mostly attached around joints, and an action is usually completed by multiple skeletal muscles.
Among them, elbow flexion and elbow extension are completed under the coordination of more than two muscle groups.
Remember the special circumstances:
When the arm droops naturally, both biceps brachii and triceps brachii relax; When the arm lifts a heavy object, both biceps brachii and triceps brachii contract;
When elbow flexion, biceps brachii contracts and triceps brachii relaxes; When the elbow is extended, triceps brachii contracts and triceps brachii relaxes.
▲ The energy required for exercise comes from the oxidative decomposition of organic matter in muscle cells.
Chapter 16 animal behavior
1, animal behavior: the behavior of animals under internal and external stimuli. Such as animal movements, songs, body posture or color changes.
Animal behavior: It is regulated by nervous system and hormones and controlled by genetic material, which is gradually formed in a long evolution (natural selection).
According to the occurrence of animal behavior, animal behavior can be divided into congenital behavior and acquired learning behavior.
The simplest learning behavior is a kind of habituation (seeing the change of crow behavior before and after the scarecrow).
2. According to the function of animal behavior, animal behavior can be divided into feeding behavior, territorial behavior, aggressive behavior, defensive behavior, reproductive behavior, rhythmic behavior, group behavior and so on. (Know how to give examples and distinguish)
Note: The essential difference between aggressive behavior and defensive behavior lies in whether they are the same animal.
Remember: animal behavior is conducive to individual survival and racial continuity.
Pay special attention to community behavior (judging whether an animal group is a community: whether there is a leader in the group and whether there is a division of labor and cooperation in the group)
▲ To judge whether a group's behavior is a community behavior depends on whether its behavior serves the group. For example, the "group fight" of worker bees is a defensive behavior from an individual perspective and a community behavior from a group perspective. The same is true of worker bees' foraging behavior.
3, the study of animal behavior:
The main methods to study animal behavior are observation and experiment. (Know how to distinguish)
Understand the steps when doing some experiments to verify a problem:
Ask questions (assumptions)-design experiments according to assumptions-observe and record experimental phenomena-analyze experimental phenomena and draw conclusions through reasoning.
Then, in order to reduce contingency, a control group is usually set up.
▲ Animal behavior research case:
Fabres's research on insects (mainly observation) (French entomologist)
Frish's research on the color perception of bees (experimental method) (Austrian zoologist, outstanding scholar of animal behavior)
-Verify the color vision of bees through color cards.
Study on Dinbergen's feeding behavior of young gulls (British Dutch zoologist)
Lawrence's research on the learning behavior of Xiao Ye geese (Austrian scholar, "father of modern animal behavior")
▲ The essential difference between observation method and experiment method: whether to exert external influence on the research object (animal).
Connection: experimental method is based on observation method, and the two are inseparable.
Chapter 17 Animals in the Biosphere
There are about 6.5438+0.5 million known animals in the biosphere. There are more than 6,300 species of vertebrates in China, accounting for 14% of the world's vertebrate species.
1, the main role of animals in the biosphere:
A promotes the material circulation of the biosphere (it will directly or indirectly feed on green plants, so it is called a consumer)
B positive effect on plants: help plants spread pollen, make plants fertilize smoothly, and promote plant growth and reproduction.
C plays an important role in maintaining the ecological balance of the ecosystem.
Ecological balance: in the ecosystem, the number of various organisms and their respective proportions are always kept in a relatively stable state.
Food chain and food web: in a certain natural area, the complex nutritional relationship between predation and feeding of various organisms forms food chain and food web. This interdependent and restrictive relationship between organisms makes the number of various biological populations tend to be balanced, thus promoting the coordinated development of organisms.
Any animal in the biosphere interacts with its habitat. Animals not only adapt to the environment, but also obtain necessary materials and energy from the environment, and can influence and change the environment.
2. Animal resources in China:
Many rare animals unique to China: mammals-giant panda, golden monkey, pronghorn, white-lipped deer and baiji. Birds-brown eared pheasant, black-necked crane. Reptile-alligator. Amphibian-giant salamander. Fish-Chinese sturgeon and Chinese sturgeon.
Giant panda, a mammal, is a first-class protected animal in China, only found in Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi and other provinces. Establish Wolong Nature Reserve in Sichuan Province;
Pronghorn, a national first-class protected animal, is only found in Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi and Tibet.
Brown-eared pheasant, a national first-class protected animal, is mainly distributed in mountainous areas such as Luliang Mountain in Shanxi and Northwest Hebei.
Chinese alligator, an ancient reptile, is known as a "living fossil".
& Animal diversity includes species diversity, genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity. Among them, genetic diversity is the foundation; The diversity of ecosystems provides habitats for living things.
To protect the diversity of animals, we should formulate protection strategies and take protection measures from three aspects: genetic material, species and ecological environment. The most fundamental thing is to protect the diversity of ecosystems.
Measures to protect animal diversity include: in-situ protection, ex-situ protection, legal education and management. Among them, local protection is the main measure; Ex situ conservation is a supplementary measure; Laws and regulations include: environmental protection law, wildlife protection law, forest law and nature protection outline.
▲ The main measure of in-situ protection is to establish nature reserves.