Kneeling: High school biology (PEP) requires two notes. The answer is powder!

Chapter 1 Discovery of Genetic Factors Section 1 Mendel pea hybridization experiment (1) 1. Material selection: pea (1) is a self-pollinating plant, and it is also a self-pollinating plant; (2) The pea flower is large, which is convenient for manual operation; (3) Peas are easy to distinguish. 2. Commonly used concepts in genetics: (1) Trait: morphological characteristics and physiological characteristics of organisms. Relative traits: different manifestations of the same trait of an organism. Character segregation: In the hybrid offspring, dominant and recessive characters appear at the same time. Dominant trait: the trait represented by F 1 in DD×dd hybridization test. Recessive trait: F 1 trait not shown in DD×dd hybridization test (2) Homozygote: individuals with the same genetic factor (gene). Its characteristic is that homozygotes are homozygotes, and there is no separation of traits. Heterozygote: Genetic factors (genes) make up different individuals. It is characterized by the phenomenon of character separation in the self-bred offspring of heterozygotes. (3) Hybridization: the way of hybridization between individuals with different genetic factors. Self-crossing: the way of crossing between individuals with the same genetic factors. Test crossing: the way in which F 1 (the individual to be tested) crosses with recessive homozygote. Orthogonality and backcrossing: They are relative. 3. The essence of segregation phenomenon: when gametes are formed, alleles separate with the separation of homologous chromosomes in the later stage of meiosis and enter different gametes respectively. Mendel pea hybridization experiment (2) 1. Conclusion Two pairs of relative traits hybridization experiment (1) Two pairs of relative traits are controlled by two pairs of alleles, which are located on two pairs of homologous chromosomes respectively. (2) When F1meiosis produces gametes, alleles must be separated, and non-alleles (non-alleles located on non-homologous chromosomes) can freely combine and occur at the same time. (3)3)F2 has 16 combinations, 9 genotypes and 4 phenotypes, and the ratio is 9: 3: 3: 12. The essence of the law of free combination: when a gamete is formed, the paired genes are separated from each other, which determines the free combination of genes with different traits. 4. Common genetic symbols P F 1 F2 × ♀ ♂ Parents, children, first generation, second generation, cross selfing, maternal parent, paternal meaning Chapter II Relationship between genes and chromosomes Section 1 Meiosis and fertilization 1. Some concepts of meiosis (1) chromosomes and chromatids: During cell division, chromosomes replicate into two sister chromatids connected by centromeres. So the number of chromosomes should be judged according to the centromere. (2) Homologous chromosomes and tetrads: Homologous chromosomes refer to a pair of chromosomes with the same shape and size, one from the mother and the other from the father, which can be paired during the first meiosis. Tetrad means that each pair of homologous chromosomes contains four sister chromatids after the first meiosis of homologous chromosomes. (3) A pair of homologous chromosomes = a tetrad =2 chromosomes =4 chromatids =4 DNA molecules. (4) Synapsis: the phenomenon that homologous chromosomes are paired. (5) Cross-exchange: refers to the phenomenon that non-sister chromatids twine and exchange some fragments during tetrad. (6) Meiosis is a kind of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is halved when mature germ cells are produced by sexual reproductive organisms. 2. Characteristics of meiosis: replication once, division twice. Results: The number of chromosomes was halved, which occurred in the first meiosis. Location: in reproductive organ 3. Comparison of similarities and differences between sperm and egg formation There are differences and similarities in the items. Sperm and egg are formed the same. Chromosome replication is the first division of a primary spermatocyte (2n) to produce two secondary spermatocytes (n) with the same size. Primary oocytes (2n) (unequal division of cytoplasm) produce secondary oocytes (n) and first oocytes. Homologous chromosomes of polar body (N) unite to form tetrad, homologous chromosomes are separated, non-homologous chromosomes are freely combined, cytoplasm divides, and the number of daughter cells is halved. Two secondary spermatocytes divide for the second time to form four sperm cells (n) with the same size, and a secondary oocyte (with uneven cytoplasm division) forms a large egg cell (n) and a small second polar body. The first polar body splits (equally) into two second polar bodies, centromere splits, sister chromatids separate and move to the two poles respectively, cytoplasm splits, and the chromosome number of daughter cells remains unchanged, with or without deformation. Sperm cells deform to form sperm without deformation. As a result, only four functional sperm cells were produced. (n) The number of chromosomes in sperm and egg cells is halved. Note: Egg cells are formed without deformation, only one egg cell is formed. 5. Comparison of main similarities and differences between meiosis and mitosis: The number and time of chromosome replication in meiosis and mitosis are once, and the interval between meiosis and mitosis is once. The number of mitotic interphase cell divisions, whether the secondary synaptosome tetrad appeared in the first meiosis without homologous chromosome separation, and no centromere division occurred in the later stage of the first meiosis, including the name and number of daughter cells, 4 sperm cells or 1 egg, 3 polar bodies, and the chromosome changes in the two daughter cells were halved. During the first meiosis, the genetic composition between invariant cells is not necessarily the same. 6. Fertilization: refers to the process that eggs and sperm recognize each other and fuse into fertilized eggs. Note: The chromosomes in the nucleus of fertilized eggs are provided by sperm and eggs, but the cytoplasm is almost entirely provided by eggs, so some traits of offspring are more like mothers. Significance: Through meiosis and fertilization, the number of chromosomes in somatic cells of sexual reproductive organisms remains unchanged, thus ensuring the stability of heredity and species; In meiosis, the free combination of non-homologous chromosomes and the cross exchange of non-sister chromatids occur, which increases the diversity of gametes. The randomness of the combination of egg cells and sperm during fertilization makes the offspring diverse, which is beneficial to the evolution of organisms and embodies the superiority of sexual reproduction. Genes on chromosome 1 in the second quarter. Sutton hypothesis infers that genes are on chromosomes, which means that chromosomes are the carriers of genes. Because there is an obvious parallel relationship between genes and chromosome behavior. 2. Experimental evidence that genes are located on chromosomes. Analysis of Drosophila hybridization experiment. 3. Generally, there are many genes on a chromosome, and these genes are arranged linearly on the chromosome. 4. The essence of gene segregation: the essence of the law of free combination of genes: the third section of sex-linked inheritance 1. The concept of sex-linked inheritance: 2. The characteristics of human red-green color blindness (with X chromosome recessive genetic disease) are as follows: ① There are more male patients than female patients. (2) Cross inheritance. Namely male → female → male. (3) General atavism. 3. Characteristics of vitamin D-resistant rickets (X-chromosome dominant hereditary disease): (1) There are more female patients than male patients. (2) handed down from generation to generation. 4. The application of sex-linked inheritance in production practice: 5. The formula for judging human genetic diseases: nothing is hidden and nothing is dominant; Invisible to see female disease, female disease male sex; Dominant, male diseases, male diseases and female diseases are not accompanied. 6. Characteristics of three kinds of sex-linked inheritance: (1) Features of recessive genetic band X: ① male > female ② atavism (cross-inheritance) ③ Mother's sick children are bound to get sick, and female's sick father is bound to get sick; (2) Features of dominant genetic band X: ① female > male ② persistent illness; ③ Father's sick woman is bound to get sick, and features of sick mother (3) Y-band inheritance: (3) 2 father → son → grandson; 3. Common genetic diseases (to be remembered): X-recessive: color blindness, hemophilia with X-ray: vitamin D-resistant rickets are often recessive: congenital deafness, albinism often appear: more (and) refers to the nature of the genes in the first section of Chapter 3. Griffith transformation experiment of pneumococcus in 1928: 1. There are two kinds of pneumococci: S-type bacteria: the colony is smooth, the thallus has a membrane, and toxic R-type bacteria: the colony is rough, the thallus has no membrane and is nontoxic. 2. Experimental process 3. Experiments show that the transformation of this trait can be inherited after the non-toxic R-type live bacteria are mixed with the toxic S-type bacteria killed by heating. Griffith: In the fourth group of experiments, the S-type bacteria killed by heating must contain some active substance-"transformation factor" which promotes this transformation. 2. Avery's experiment in 1944: 1. Experimental process: 2. Experiments have proved that DNA is a substance that produces stable genetic changes in R-type bacteria. (That is, DNA is genetic material, but protein is not. ) 3. 1952 experiment: Hershey and Datong phage infected bacteria 1. Experimental process 2. Experimental conclusion: the characteristics of the progeny phage are inherited from the DNA of the parents. (that is, DNA is genetic material) 4. 1956 the experiment of tobacco mosaic virus infecting tobacco proves that RNA is genetic material in viruses with only RNA. ) section 2 DNA structure and DNA replication: 1 .DNA structure 1, DNA components: c, h, o, n, P 2, basic unit of DNA: deoxynucleotides (4 kinds) 3. DNA structure: ① Two anti-parallel deoxynucleotide chains are coiled into a double helix structure. ② Exterior: deoxyribose and phosphoric acid are alternately connected to form a basic skeleton. Internal: composed of hydrogen-bonded base pairs. ③ Base pairing has certain regularity: a = t；; G C. (principle of base complementary pairing) 4. Characteristics of DNA: ① Diversity: The arrangement order of base pairs is ever-changing. (Number of arranged species: 4n(n is the logarithm of base pairs) ② Specificity: The base arrangement order of each specific DNA molecule is specific. 5. Function of DNA: It carries genetic information (the sequence of base pairs in DNA molecules represents genetic information). 6.DNA correlation calculation: in double-stranded DNA molecules: ① The sum of any two non-complementary bases, a = t and G = C2, is equal; And it is equal to half of the sum of all bases: A+G = A+C = T+G = T+C = 1/2 All bases 2, DNA replication 1, concept: the process of synthesizing offspring DNA with two strands of parental DNA molecules as templates 2. Time: mitotic interval and interval before negative I 3. Location: mainly in nucleus 4. Process: 1. Expand; 2. Synthesis of sub-chains; 3. Winding the mother chain to form the daughter DNA molecule 5. Features: semi-conservative replication 6. Principle: base complementary pairing principle 7. Conditions: ① Template: two strands of parent DNA molecule ② Raw materials: four kinds of free deoxynucleotides ③ Energy: ATPase: helicase, DNA polymerase, etc. 8. The reasons why 8.DNA can be accurately replicated are as follows: ① The unique double helix structure provides an accurate template for replication; ② The principle of base complementary pairing ensures the accuracy of replication. 9. Significance: DNA molecular replication enables genetic information to be transmitted from parents to offspring, thus ensuring the continuity of genetic information. In the third section, genes control the synthesis of protein 1. RNA structure: 1, components: c, h, o, n, P 2, basic unit: ribonucleotides (4 kinds) 3. Structure: generally single strand 2. Gene: DNA fragment with genetic effect. Mainly on chromosomes. 3. Gene-controlled protein synthesis: 1, transcription: (1) Concept: The process of synthesizing RNA with a strand of DNA as a template in the nucleus according to the principle of base complementary pairing. (Note: chloroplasts and mitochondria are also transcribed) (2) Process (3) Conditions: Template: A DNA strand (template strand) Raw materials: 4 kinds of ribonucleotides Energy: ATPase: helicase, RNA polymerase, etc. (4) principle: base complementary pairing principle (A-U, T-A, G-C, C-. Transfer RNA 2. Translation: (1) Concept: The process of synthesizing protein with a certain amino acid sequence using various amino acids free in cytoplasm as templates. (Note: chloroplasts and mitochondria are also translated) (2) Process: (3) Conditions: Template: mRNA raw materials: amino acids (20 kinds) Energy: ATPase: various enzyme processing tools: tRNA assembly machine: ribosome (4) principle: base complementary pairing principle (5) product: polypeptide chain 3. Calculate the number of bases in genes related to gene expression: in mRNA molecules. 4. The control of genes on traits is 1, and the central rule is 2. The way of controlling traits by genes is: (1) controlling the metabolic process by controlling the synthesis of enzymes, and then controlling biological traits; (2) By controlling the structure of protein, the biological characters are directly controlled. Chapter IV Molecular Basis of Inheritance Section 1 Types of Genetic Mutation and Genetic Recombination Biological Variation Non-genetic variation (only caused by environmental changes) Genetic variation (caused by genetic material changes) Genetic mutation Gene recombination chromosome variation 2. Genetic variation (1) Gene mutation 1. Concept: refers to the addition, deletion or change of base pairs in DNA molecules. 2. Cause: Physical factors: X-ray, laser, etc. Chemical factors: nitrite, base analogues, etc. Biological factors: virus, bacteria, etc. 3. Features: ① Low frequency of occurrence; ② the direction is uncertain; ③ Random gene mutation can occur at any stage of individual development; Gene mutation can occur in different DNA molecules or different parts of the same DNA molecule in cells. 4 is everywhere. Results: Make a gene become its allele. 5. Time: interphase of cell division (DNA replication period) 6. Application-Mutation Breeding 1 Method: Treating organisms with radiation, laser, chemicals, etc. ② Principle: Gene mutation ③ Example: Obtaining high-yield Penicillium strain ④ Advantages and disadvantages: Speeding up the breeding process, some characters have been greatly improved, but there are few beneficial mutants. 7. Significance: ① It is the fundamental source of biological variation; (2) providing original materials for biological evolution; ③ It is one of the important reasons for the formation of biodiversity. (2) Gene recombination 1. Concept: refers to the process of controlling gene recombination of different traits during sexual reproduction. 2. Species: ① When meiosis (minus ⅰ) forms gametes, with the free combination of non-homologous chromosomes, non-allelic genes located on these chromosomes are also free to combine. The result of the combination may produce individuals with different genotypes from their parents. ② Allele exchange on homologous chromosomes (non-sister chromatids) during negative ⅰ tetrad. The result is the recombination of genes on chromosomes, and the result of combination may produce individuals with different genotypes from their parents. ③ recombinant DNA technology. Results: Four new genotypes were produced. Application (Breeding): Hybrid Breeding 5. Significance: ① It provides a rich source for biological variation; (2) provide materials for biological evolution; ③ It is one of the important reasons for the formation of biodiversity (Ⅲ) Chromosome variation (Ⅱ) Chromosome variation and its application I. Chromosome structural variation: Example: Meow syndrome (partial deletion of chromosome 5) Types: deletion, repetition, inversion and translocation (reading comprehension) II. Chromosome structural variation. Chromosome number variation 1, type individual chromosome increase or decrease: Example: 2 1 trisomy syndrome (with 1 chromosome) multiplies or decreases in the form of chromosome set: Example: triploid seedless watermelon 2. Chromosome set: (1) Concept: All chromosomes in diploid gametes form a chromosome set. (2) Features: ① There are no homologous chromosomes in a genome, and their shapes and functions are different; ② The genome carries all the genetic information that controls the growth of organisms. Haploid, diploid and polyploid individuals developed from gametes are called haploids. If a somatic cell contains several chromosomes, the fertilized egg is called ploidy, if it contains two chromosomes, it is called diploid, if it contains three chromosomes, it is called triploid, and so on. Individuals with three or more chromosomes in somatic cells are called polyploids. III. Application of Chromosome Variation in Breeding Overview of breeding methods: 1 Polyploid breeding: Methods: Treating germinated seeds or seedlings with colchicine. (principle: it can inhibit the formation of spindle, resulting in chromosome non-separation, thus doubling the number of chromosomes in cells) principle: examples of chromosome variation: cultivation of triploid seedless watermelon; Advantages and disadvantages: The cultivated plants have large organs, high yield and rich nutrition, but low seed setting rate and late maturity. 2. Haploid breeding: Methods: The principle of pollen (medicine) culture in vitro: Examples of chromosome variation: Advantages and disadvantages of breeding dwarf disease-resistant rice: the offspring are homozygous, which obviously shortens the breeding cycle, but the technology is complicated. Polyploid breeding haploid breeding Mutation breeding method: treating biological principles with rays, lasers, chemicals, etc. The advantages and disadvantages of gene mutation accelerate the breeding process and greatly improve some characters, but few beneficial individuals. 4. Hybrid breeding method: simple, but it takes a long time to get homozygotes. Principle: Gene recombination Section III focuses on human genetic diseases 1. The difference between human genetic diseases and congenital diseases: genetic diseases: diseases caused by changes in genetic material. Congenital disease: congenital disease. (Not necessarily genetic diseases) Second, the causes of human genetic diseases: human genetic diseases are human diseases caused by changes in genetic materials. III. Types of human genetic diseases (1) Single gene genetic diseases 1, concept: genetic diseases controlled by a pair of alleles. 2. Reason: Human hereditary diseases are human diseases caused by changes in genetic material. 3. Features: It runs in the family and has a high incidence rate (about 20%-25% in China). 4. Type: dominant hereditary disease X-ray: vitamin D resistant rickets common: polydactyly, syndactyly and achondroplasia X-ray: recessive hereditary disease X-ray: color blindness, hemophilia often hidden: congenital deafness, deafness. 2. Common types: cleft palate, anencephaly, essential hypertension, juvenile diabetes, etc. (3) Chromosome abnormal genetic disease (chromosome disease for short) 1. Concept: Hereditary diseases caused by chromosomal abnormalities. (including quantity anomalies and structural anomalies) 2. Type: structural abnormality of autosomal genetic disease: abnormal meow number syndrome: trisomy syndrome (congenital mental retardation) Sex chromosome genetic disease: gonadal hypoplasia syndrome (XO type, the patient lacks an X chromosome) 4. Monitoring and prevention of genetic diseases 1. Prenatal diagnosis: Before the fetus is born, the doctor determines whether the fetus has some genetic disease or congenital disease through special detection means. Prenatal diagnosis can greatly reduce the birth rate of sick children. 2. Genetic counseling: it can effectively prevent the occurrence and development of genetic diseases to a certain extent. 5. The human genome project and its significance plan: complete the genetic mapping, physical mapping and sequencing of all genes on 24 chromosomes of human body. Significance: We can clearly understand the composition, structure, function and relationship of human genes, which is of great significance for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of human diseases. Chapter V Evolution of Organisms Section 1 Development of the Theory of Biological Evolution 1. Lamarckian Theory of Evolution 1. Theoretical point: use in and waste out; Acquired inheritance 2. Progressiveness: It is believed that organisms are evolutionary. Darwin's theory of natural selection 1, theoretical points: natural selection (excessive reproduction → survival competition → genetic variation → survival of the fittest) 2. Progressiveness: it can scientifically explain the reasons for biological evolution and the diversity and adaptability of organisms. 3. Limitations: ① The essence of heredity and variation cannot be explained scientifically; ② Natural selection cannot scientifically explain how heritable variation works. (The explanation of biological evolution is limited to the individual level) III. Modern Darwinism (1) Population is the basic unit of biological evolution (the essence of biological evolution: the change of population gene frequency) 1. Population: Concept: All individuals of the same organism occupying a certain space in a certain period of time are called population. Features: it is not only the basic unit of biological reproduction; It is also the basic unit of biological evolution. 2. Population gene pool: all genes contained in all individuals of a group constitute the gene pool of the group; (2) mutation and gene recombination are raw materials for biological evolution; (3) Natural selection determines the direction of evolution: under the action of natural selection, the gene frequency of the population will change directionally, leading to the continuous evolution of organisms in a certain direction. (4) Mutation, gene recombination, selection and isolation are the mechanisms of species formation. 1. species: refers to a group of biological individuals that are distributed in a certain natural area, have certain morphological structure and physiological function characteristics, and can mate with each other in a natural state to produce fertile offspring. 2. Isolation: geographical isolation: the phenomenon that the same organism is divided into different populations due to geographical obstacles, so that gene communication between populations cannot occur. Reproductive isolation: refers to the fact that individuals of different populations cannot mate freely or produce infertile offspring after mating. 3. Species formation: (1) Common ways of species formation: geographical isolation (long-term) → reproductive isolation (2) signs of species formation: reproductive isolation (3) three links of species formation: mutation and gene recombination: providing raw material selection for biological evolution: changing the gene frequency orientation and isolation of population is a necessary condition for the formation of new species. Part II: Biological evolution and biodiversity. The basic course of biological evolution is 1. Life on earth is from single cell to multi-cell. 2. After the appearance of eukaryotic cells, mitosis and meiosis occur, resulting in sexual reproduction, which greatly increases the variation caused by gene recombination, so the speed of biological evolution is greatly accelerated. Second, biological evolution and the formation of biodiversity 1. The relationship between biodiversity and biological evolution is as follows: the cause of biodiversity is the result of biological evolution; The emergence of biodiversity has accelerated the evolution of organisms. 2. Biodiversity includes three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.