Space activities in the United States include military and civilian activities, which are under the responsibility of the Ministry of National Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration respectively. Both the Ministry of National Defense and the National Space Administration have independent scientific research and experimental institutions, launch bases and measurement and control systems, and have extensive cooperation with other government departments, universities and private enterprises. The main launch sites of American spacecraft are the East Range and West Range of the Air Force and the Kennedy Space Center of NASA. From 1958 to 1984, the United States used eight kinds of launch vehicles: Pioneer, Juno, Redstone, Raytheon, Universe, Scout, Hercules, Saturn and Space Flight.
Satellite application
From 1958 to the end of 1984, the United States launched 923 artificial earth satellites, including scientific satellites, technical test satellites and application satellites, of which about one satellite was used. Since the early 1960s, reconnaissance satellites, meteorological satellites, navigation satellites and geodesic satellites have been launched one after another. 1On August 9th, 964, the world's first geostationary orbit test communication satellite was launched, which made satellite communication enter a practical stage. Early warning satellites and earth resources satellites have been put into use since the 1970s. By the 1980s, while continuing to improve several original application satellites, broadcasting satellites, tracking and data relay satellites were launched.
manned space flight
From 196 1 to 1984, the United States has successively realized five manned space programs and completed 46 manned space flights, costing about 50 billion US dollars. 196 1 In May, 2008, A.B. Sheppard completed the first orbital flight on the Mercury spacecraft. 196 1 In September, 2008, Johnson Space Center was established. Its task is to design and manufacture manned spacecraft and select and train astronauts. Project mercury, Gemini and Apollo were realized in the Indian era. Through the first two plans, the problem of manned space flight and return was solved, and the technologies of spacecraft orbital maneuver, rendezvous and docking and astronaut extravehicular activities were tested, which laid the foundation for the implementation of Apollo plan. 1July 1969 to1972+05438+June 2002, six Apollo spacecraft completed their voyage around the moon, and 12 astronauts made scientific investigations on the surface of the moon. In the 1970s, the United States focused on two projects: the Skylab project and the space plane project. 1973。 During the period of 1974, three groups of astronauts entered the Apollo spacecraft to carry out experiments in biology, astronomy, earth resources investigation and production technology. The space shuttle was developed in 1972. It was first tested in April and put into use in June.
Deep space exploration
The goal of deep space exploration in the United States is to investigate celestial bodies and interplanetary space environment in the solar system, with emphasis on the moon and Mars, followed by Venus, Mercury, Jupiter and Saturn. 1958。 During the period of 1968, we visited the moon successively with the probes Pioneer, Rover, Surveyor and Lunar Orbiter, including taking photos of the lunar surface and analyzing the lunar soil, which provided scientific data for manned landing on the moon. Mars probes mainly include Mariner 4, Mariner 6, Mariner 7 and Mariner 9, as well as Pirate 1 and Pirate 2. Mariner 2, launched in 1962, and Mariner 5, launched in 1967, passed by at 35,000 km and 7,600 km from Venus, respectively, and measured the atmospheric density and surface temperature of Venus. Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 1 1, 1972 and 1973, which were launched on March 2 and April 5, respectively, were launched in February. Pioneer 10 crossed the average orbit of Pluto in 1986, becoming the first spacecraft to fly out of the solar system. 1 Voyager1launched in 977 and Voyager 2 flew to Jupiter in 1979. They first approached Saturn for 80 years, and then flew to Saturn at 198 1. They took photos of Saturn, provided new information about the ring structure of Saturn, and discovered new moons of Saturn.
US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration-A brief introduction to history
Mercury-Redstone 3 was launched on May 5, 196 1, and astronaut alan shepard became the first American astronaut to go into space. Space race
After the former Soviet Union successfully sent the first artificial satellite Sputnik-19571October 4, the attention of the United States shifted to the development of its nascent space industry. The US Congress was shocked by the satellite crisis and demanded that the government take immediate action. However, President Eisenhower and his advisory group thought it should be considered more carefully. After months of deliberation, they think it is necessary to establish a brand-new government agency to lead all non-military space operations.
The first American satellite orbiting the earth, Explorer I, was launched on June1958+1October 3 1 day. On July 29th of the same year, President Eisenhower signed the establishment of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, which was formally established in June 1958+ 10/. NASA is a research institution with a history of 46 years, four experimental institutions of the National Aviation Advisory Committee and 80 members. The German rocket program was led by Werner Werner wernher von braun, a former German rocket expert who moved to the United States after the war. He made great contributions to the United States' entry into the space race and was known as the father of the American space program. Part of the Army Ballistic Missile Bureau and the Naval Research Laboratory are also incorporated into the organization of NASA.
Space program
The red glare of the rocket
Gemini project
Apollo program
skylab
space plane
International Space Station (in cooperation with Russia, Canada, Europe, Russian Space Agency and Japan Space Development Agency)
Constellation plan
In the original plan, the Apollo program was launched after the end of the project mercury and Gemini programs, with the aim of doing "interesting" work in space and even sending astronauts to the moon orbit (not going to land on the moon). In his speech on May 25th, 196 1, President Kennedy claimed that the United States would "send an astronaut to the moon and bring it back safely" before 1970, which made the Apollo program adjust rapidly. The Apollo program became a manned moon landing program. Gemini soon became a mission to provide auxiliary spacecraft technology for the much more complicated Apollo program.
Aldrin (Apollo 1 1) walked on the surface of the moon, including the first death of an American astronaut in Apollo 1 and apollo 8's feat of flying around the moon for the first time. After eight years of preliminary preparation, Apollo planned to send neil armstrong and buzz aldrin to the moon on July 20th, 1969. After getting out of the lunar module, Armstrong said, "This is a small step for human beings and a big step for all mankind." By 1972, * * * had 12 astronauts successfully landed on the moon.
NASA won the race to land on the moon, but in a sense, it lost its direction, at least lost public attention and interest, in order to keep Congress approving the high budget. After President Johnson stepped down, NASA lost its main political support, and rocket scientist Werner wernher von braun was sent to Washington to lobby politicians. As a follow-up plan, the idea of establishing a space station and a lunar base before 1990 and landing on Mars by astronauts was put forward, but the equipment used in Saturn rocket and Apollo program could not support these goals. The explosion of Apollo 13 oxygen cylinder almost crashed, almost killing all three astronauts, which attracted the attention and attention of the whole country. Although the Apollo program was arranged until Apollo 20, Apollo 17 ended her mother program. The plan was terminated due to budget constraints (partly due to the high expenditure in Vietnam War) and plans to build reusable spacecraft.
NASA-Scientific Research Activities NASA's Earth Meteorology is mainly engaged in the following four aspects of aviation technology: ① Aerodynamics: turbulence, airfoil, supersonic flight, etc. ② Propulsion technology: combustion and fuel, noise and its propagation, computational fluid dynamics, research on turbine mechanical parts. ③ Materials and structures: composite materials, high-temperature materials, dynamic loads and aeroelasticity, structural analysis, etc. (4) Avionics and human factors engineering: guidance/navigation, avionics, flight management and simulation technology.
The long-term goals of NASA are: to play a leading role in using space technology to meet national needs; Using the new space long-distance communication ability to serve the public; Maintain the advantages of American civil and military aviation; Continue scientific exploration and strengthen understanding of the universe, solar system and earth environment; Application, research and technical development of artificial satellites; Transfer of space technology and knowledge for general industry. At present, the main research scope and objectives of NASA include:
Aerospace technology: realize technological and engineering revolution in aerospace field, develop more advanced and safer aviation technology, enhance carrying capacity and reduce radiation and noise; Innovate space transportation system, reduce cost, improve safety and conduct commercial development.
Human space exploration and development: explore the frontier of space, develop a space for human beings to work and live permanently, conduct commercial development of the universe, and share the experience and benefits brought by exploration.
Earth science: develop a system to understand earth science, explore its response to changes in the natural environment and human activities, and improve the prediction level of climate, weather and natural disasters.
Cosmic science: responsible for astronomical projects, studying the influence of solar system and solar activities on the earth.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Research Project
1957 A few days after the launch of the first artificial earth satellite in the Soviet Union, the United States established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, which played an important role in the development of American space industry. NASA has a wide range of research topics, mainly aerospace. The research topics in aviation mainly include supersonic technology and aircraft energy-saving technology. In aerospace, we mainly cooperate with several large-scale projects, such as Apollo program, Sky Lab and Space Shuttle. It maintains close relations with research institutions, universities and industrial enterprises of the Ministry of National Defense through scientific research projects, contracts and plans. It has more than a dozen research centers and laboratories, such as Goddard Space Center, Kennedy Space Center and Jet Propulsion Laboratory. But more than 80% of scientific research work is entrusted to all units outside the bureau. The research results are published in the form of NASA publications. Publications include technical reports, technical descriptions, contract user reports, technical memoranda, technical translations, special publications, etc.
The annual budget of NASA is $654.38+0.6 billion, and its headquarters is in Washington, D.C. Besides the space program, NASA also conducts long-term civil and military aerospace research. NASA is widely regarded as the leader of space agencies in the world.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration-research field
NASA is engaged in research fields: aviation research and exploration, including space science (solar system exploration, Mars exploration, moon exploration, cosmic structure and environment), earth science research (earth science, earth science application), biophysics research, and aviation (aviation technology), and undertakes certain training projects.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Institutional Settings
Institutional setup of NASA: The Washington headquarters of NASA is the highest management institution. There are Ames Research Center (National Aeronautics and Space Administration -ARC), Dryden Flight Research Center (National Aeronautics and Space Administration -DFRC), Glenn Research Center (National Aeronautics and Space Administration -GRC), Goddard Space Research Institute (National Aeronautics and Space Administration -GISS), Goddard Space Flight Center (National Aeronautics and Space Administration -GSFC), Independent Certification and Appraisal Institute (NASA-IVVF) and Jet. Kennedy Space Center (National Aeronautics and Space Administration -KSC), Langley Research Center (National Aeronautics and Space Administration -LRC), Marshall Aviation Flight Center (National Aeronautics and Space Administration -MSFC), Stannis Space Center (National Aeronautics and Space Administration -SSC), Wallop Flight Research Institute (National Aeronautics and Space Administration -WFF) and Baisha Experimental Research Institute (NASA-WST F).
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Award has set the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal as the highest medal of NASA, which is used to reward non-government employees who have successfully completed their work tasks and made outstanding contributions to NASA, but this contribution is not enough for other medals to show their achievements.
The NASA Distinguished Service Medal is only awarded to government employees. Awarded to employees who actively show loyalty or creativity and make progress in engineering, aviation, aerospace and management. Thus, NASA's plan has made substantial progress.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Equal Employment Opportunity Medal is awarded to government and non-government employees, and awarded to government, society and group members who have made outstanding achievements and substantial contributions to NASA's fair employment plan.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Outstanding Administrative Achievement Medal is only awarded to government employees. It is used to reward those federal government employees who have made great and special achievements in the management of NASA, made unusual contributions on their own initiative or made substantial progress creatively.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Outstanding Achievement Medal is only awarded to government employees. It is used to reward people who have made great contributions to NASA, including special achievements, program improvement, efficiency, service, financial savings and technological progress.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Medal of Courage is awarded to the government and government employees. It is used to reward individuals who set an example and bravely handle emergencies regardless of personal danger to avoid loss of life and government property.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Outstanding Technical Achievement Award is awarded to government and non-government employees. It rewards those who have made outstanding contributions to the early technological development, exemplary cooperative efforts, technological development and change and the transformation of aerospace technology into commercial applications planned by NASA.
The NASA Space Flight Medal is awarded to those who have made great achievements or served in civil or military space flight, including astronauts, pilots, mission experts, load experts or other people involved in space missions.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Public Service Medal is awarded to non-government employees, rewarding non-government employees who have completed their tasks and recognizing their special contributions to NASA.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Outstanding Leadership Medal is only awarded to government employees to reward those leaders who have made outstanding achievements and have an extraordinary impact on NASA's science, technology and administration.
National aeronautics and space administration distinguished service medal. Only granted to government employees. This is the highest honorary title of NASA, awarded to those federal employees who have provided outstanding services to NASA, have extraordinary talent or spirit, and made substantial progress. Other medals cannot show their achievements.
The NASA Outstanding Engineering Achievement Award is awarded to government or non-government employees who have contributed to the project.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Outstanding Scientific Achievement Award (ESAM) is awarded to those who have made significant scientific contributions in the fields of aviation and space exploration.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)-American organization has a huge sunspot on the sun. The national aeronautics and space administration of the United States is directly under the leadership of the president and is headed by the director. NASA implements two levels of management, namely, the management of bureau headquarters and the management of strategic affairs department. The headquarters of the Bureau has the leadership responsibility for the overall situation, coordinates the work inside and outside the Bureau, conducts external cost accounting and liaison with NASA, formulates the long-term plan and annual plan of the Director, implements budget integration, and formulates the development strategy, long-term investment strategy and policies and standards of NASA. Supervise the technical management of the research center; Check the progress and completion of each stage; Ensure the implementation of the plan approved by the state. In order to realize the mission of NASA and better serve its customers, NASA has set up six strategic affairs departments, which are responsible for the main business areas of NASA. They are: Space Flight Department (Johnson Space Center, Kennedy Space Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Stannis Space Center); Ministry of Space Technology (including Ames Research Center, Dryden Flight Research Center, Langley Research Center and Golan Research Center); Ministry of Earth Sciences (affiliated to Goddard Space Center); Department of Space Science (under the Jet Propulsion Laboratory); Department of Biological and Physical Research and Department of Security and Mission Support. Each strategic affairs department has its own set of strategic goals, objectives and implementation measures to meet the needs of major customers. The strategic affairs department is responsible for determining customer needs and ensuring all customers' satisfaction. Each department and the deputy director in charge of business jointly determine the direction of work, and are responsible for formulating the long-term investment strategy, budget, project resource allocation and performance appraisal, policies and standards of each department, and implementing NASA policies.
The headquarters of NASA has 10 research centers: Goddard Space Center, Leiden B. Johnson Space Center, John F. Kennedy Space Center, George C. Marshall Space Center, John C. Stennis Space Center, Ames Research Center, Dryden Flight Research Center, Langley Research Center, Glenn Research Center and Jet Propulsion Laboratory, among which the Jet Propulsion Laboratory is contracted by NASA.
There are mainly five aviation scientific research units under the jurisdiction of NASA headquarters, which are introduced as follows.
1) Ames research center,
2) Golan research center, John H. Glenn research center in Louisfield,
3) Langley Research Center (LaRC),
4) Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL),
5) Dryden Flight Research Center.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration-personnel and funds
The number of employees of NASA/KOOC-0/994 was 2,473/KOOC-0/,which was reduced to 2/KOOC-0/000 in/KOOC-0/999. The annual expenditure of 1994 is14.55 billion USD, and that of 1995 is14.3 billion USD. The fund of 200 1 is142.5 billion USD. In 2002, NASA had more than 8800 employees 1.200, including headquarters employees1.200, Johnson Space Center employees 1.800, Kennedy Space Center employees/.800, Marshall Space Center employees/.2700, Stannis Space Center employees about 300, Ames Research Center and. From the business field, there are more than 6,700 people engaged in human space exploration and development, 2,453 people engaged in space science, 1.200 people engaged in biological and physical research, and 1.800 people engaged in earth science.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Publications
Technical report (TR), technical description (TN), contract user report (CR), technical memorandum (TM), technical translation (TT-F), special publication (SR), etc.
NASA-Scientific research found that NASA confirmed on July 2, 20091that Jupiter was hit by other stars again in the past quite short time, resulting in a black scar falling near Jupiter's South Pole, and an earth-sized hole appeared in Jupiter's atmosphere above the impact.
This new hole on Jupiter was first observed by Australian amateur astronomer Anthony Wesley from Australia on the morning of 20th. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California then carried out observation activities and captured static pictures of Jupiter's holes and scars with the help of space infrared telescope equipment in Hawaii. Glenn Orton, an astronomical scientist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, said: "The scar may have been caused by a comet impact, but it needs further confirmation." Reg Fletcher, an astronaut at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, told New Scientist that Jupiter's black spot is "about the size of an earth".
Wesley, an Australian astronomy enthusiast who observed and photographed Jupiter's new hole, is 44 years old and is a computer programmer. Australian media reported that Wesley liked astronomical observation since he was a child, and the tool to find Jupiter's hole this time was a 14.5-inch folding reflecting telescope erected in his backyard. Wesley published his photos and shooting records online on the 20th. He said that on the same day, he first observed a "black spot" at Jupiter's South Pole, which was initially considered as "extreme violence" by Jupiter. However, with the rotation of Jupiter, he found that the black spots were three-dimensional and hollow, which immediately overturned the speculation of "extreme violence" and decided to use them as impact marks. Jupiter is a liquid planet and the largest of the eight planets in the solar system. 1July, 994 16 to 22, a comet named Shoemaker-Levi 9 collided head-on with Jupiter, which became the first celestial collision directly observed in human history.
The collision between comets and trees produced the power equivalent to 2 billion atomic bombs, produced fireballs with a diameter of 10 km and a temperature of 7000 degrees Celsius, and formed dust clouds the size of the earth. Black spots originating from Jupiter's surface have existed for several months. The New York Times reports that NASA is still tracking Jupiter to get more information, including whether the impactor is a comet or something else. Because the time of this collision is likely to coincide with the collision of Comet Wood 15 years ago, scientists also hope to study whether there is some law in it.