Foreign trade in Tang and Song Dynasties

Great changes have taken place in China's ancient foreign trade during the Tang and Song Dynasties. The changes in foreign trade center, trade system, commodity structure, trade scale, traders and navigation technology during this period are of great significance. Moreover, these changes in China's foreign trade have far-reaching international influence, providing unprecedented opportunities and impetus for the political and economic development of countries and regions along the trade route, especially in Southeast Asia, and promoting the formation and development of the South China Sea trade system. Through the investigation of foreign trade in Tang and Song Dynasties, we can see the parallel development and replacement process of northwest land trade and southeast maritime trade, and also understand the formation and development of the South China Sea trade system or "Asian economic circle" that operated until around the 9th century A.D./KLOC-0. & gt 1. Shift of foreign trade focus: Northwest land trade turns to Southeast maritime trade >: 1. The Development of Silk Road Trade in Han and Tang Dynasties: Foreign trade clearly recorded in China's history books started from the times, both on land and at sea. Hanshu Biography of the Western Regions says that "the western regions began to communicate when they were filial". Not only did the communication between the Western Han Dynasty and the Western Regions begin after they were sent to China, but also the trade between the mainland and the Western Regions began to expand on a large scale. Before this, China's goods had spread to the poison country and summer. Zhang Qian met Joan's bamboo palm and Shu Bu in the summer, and was told that the merchants in the summer went to the poison country to buy them. It is trafficked through the trade route between Shu and India. The commercial route to the western countries through Chang 'an has not yet been established. When countries in the western regions heard that the Han Dynasty had deep pockets, they "valued the property of the Han Dynasty" and hoped to communicate with the Han Dynasty. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty decided to take advantage of their demand for the property of the Han Dynasty, "leave a legacy for the benefit of the DPRK", establish relations with the western regions, and make his own "Wade spread all over the world". The political needs of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty opened the door to trade between the mainland and the western regions. & gt After Zhang Qian, the Western Han Dynasty began to send envoys to the western countries frequently. The envoys of the Western Han Dynasty moved to the northwest from the newly established Jiuquan County. Because he sent envoys to rest in peace, he chose Cai, Mao Xuan, adjusted and poisoned the country. "The messengers confronted each other on the road, with more than a hundred people in a generation and more than a hundred people in a year." There are more than a dozen messengers a year, ranging from five or six generations to eight or nine years old and a few years old recently. "There are also many envoys from western countries who follow the Han Dynasty to the Han Dynasty" and "foreign envoys will go further and further". Han dynasty preferential treatment, set up a surname in Dunhuang Jiuquan. West to salt water, there are often pavilions. Hundreds of people died in the fields, because they set up envoys to protect the fields and accumulate millet for foreigners, showing them the wealth of the big fellow. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty "traveled in the sea, but learned from foreign guests. Most of them lived there and gave them money and gifts to see how rich the Han Dynasty was ... so that foreign guests could see the products hidden in various warehouses, hoping to see the vast Han Dynasty, which turned into terror". This further aroused the desire of western countries to communicate with the Han Dynasty. Contacts between envoys are also accompanied by trade. The envoys sent by the Han Dynasty, like Zhang Qian, carried a lot of China articles, "flying knowledge and waiting for the right moment". For western countries, they "give gifts because of their envoys to appease them" and "seek novelty" at the same time to obtain the treasures of all countries. & gt Commercial trade also flourished at the same time. Countries obtained commodities of the Han Dynasty through commercial trade. When Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty sent envoys to exchange gold for Dawan's war horse, Dawan, which was once too expensive to approach, was already "Rao Wu Han". Yan Shigu noted that "Rao Hanwu" means "I have the wealth of Chinese land, so I am not greedy for the wealth of the Golden Horse". Frequent contacts between envoys and business travelers have formed two stable communication lines between the mainland and the western regions. "The Story of the Western Regions" records: "There are two routes from Yumen and Yangguan to the western regions: from Shanshan to the north of Nanshan, and from Bohe to shache, that is, the southern line. If the south road crosses the green ridge in the west, the big moon family will rest in peace. Wang Ting, the driver in front of the car, followed the northwest mountain of Bohe to Shule, which is the North Road. If the North Road passes through the Green Ridge in the west, there will be Dawan, Kangju and Chae Yeon. "On this road, Chinese mainland's most demanding commodity is silk. At that time, the Han Dynasty was the only country that could produce silk, and silk was the most popular item in the communication between neighboring nationalities and the Han Dynasty, such as "Xiongnu heroes stuffed rice" and "small towns near Yelang were greedy for China silk". After the opening of trade routes, the demand for China silk in western countries, even in West Asia and Europe has greatly increased. These two passages also became the commercial routes for Chinese mainland to the Western Regions and India, West Asia and Europe. & gt Before Emperor Wu ruled the Western Regions, there was already an economic exchange circle among the Mediterranean, Iran and India. The opening of the trade route between the Han Dynasty and the Western Regions linked Chinese mainland with this economic exchange circle. It also linked the Han Dynasty with the most powerful Roman Empire in the West at that time. At least 90% of China commodities needed by Rome are silk, in addition to fur, iron, cinnamon and rhubarb. The Greeks and Romans first learned about China through silk, and they called China silk. Greek Tuo Lei called China Xili and Sinai in his geography book, saying that it is in the easternmost part of the world. There are two books in this book, Celiset and the Kingdom of Qin E. Li Bai-nei's Natural History records: "Silk was produced in the world-famous Cyrus forest ... woven into brilliant literary works and sold to Rome. The rich and aristocratic women were cut into clothes, dazzling. "Although Rome arrived in China by sea at the end of 1 century, land was still the main trade route with China, and the sea never played a decisive role. The trade between Han Dynasty and Rome mainly transited through merchants in Central Asia and West Asia, and the development of trade between the two places reflected the situation of Silk Road trade in Han Dynasty. & gt Two basic factors determined that from the Han Dynasty to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the Northwest Silk Road occupied a dominant position in China's foreign trade route: First, China's economic center of gravity was in the north, its political center of gravity was in Luoyang, Guanzhong, and its southern coastal areas were underdeveloped. Foreign trade goods are supplied by the north, and the consumption market of imported goods is also in the north, and Beijing is the largest market; Second, the main countries that traded with China at that time were the Western Regions, Central Asia and West Asia, and they also acted as intermediaries between China and Europe. During the Han Dynasty, Daxia, Dawan, Kangju and Rest were the main trading countries of the Han Dynasty. These countries "attached importance to China's property", attached importance to commerce, and actively carried out trade with the Han Dynasty. Biography of Dawan in Historical Records, Biography of Western Regions in Han Dynasty and Biography of Western Regions in Later Han Dynasty call summer a "good city", and metropolises have "markets to sell goods". Kangju sent protons to the Han Dynasty with the purpose of "doing good for the city" rather than political submission. The country of interest is "the country of merchants' boats and cars" and the country of attachment is "good business". The Western Regions and Central Asia and West Asia attached importance to commerce, and people who were good at business were the main forces of Sino-Western trade at that time. When Gan Ying sent by the Eastern Han Dynasty wanted to go to Daqin, the others tried to stop him. The reason is that "he wants to live in peace with the Han Dynasty, so he can't cover up his worship", and he wants to continue to seek the interests of transit trade between the Han Dynasty and Rome. During the> period, the traffic and trade of the Northwest Silk Road continued to develop. The Western Jin Dynasty in Cao Wei was another period of great development of the Silk Road trade after the reign of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty and Ban Chao in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Cao Wei restored the long history of the infinite commander-in-chief and the western regions, strengthened its ties with the western regions, and further consolidated its ties in the Western Jin Dynasty, making "people from the western regions pay tribute and goods flow". Volume 30 of A Record says: "Although there are endless western regions, Weixin is a great country of Qiuci, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Shule, Yueshi, Shanshan and Cheshi. It's just like the story of the Han Dynasty. "Exchanges between countries in the western regions and countries in the Central Plains are still frequent. Moreover, at this time, the road from the mainland to the western regions was further expanded, from the north and south roads in the Han Dynasty to the three roads: "From Yumenguan in Dunhuang to the western regions, it used to be two roads, but today it is three roads. From Yumenguan to the west, through Fuqiang to the west, across the green ridge, through the cornice, into Dayue home, that is, South Road. From Yumenguan to the west, guard the well, go back to the northern end of Sanlongsha, cross Lucang, turn northwest from Shaxi well, cross Longdui, reach Guloulan, turn west to Qiuci, and reach Qingji, which is the middle road. From the northwest of Yumenguan, through the cross pit, we got through the three longsha and Longdui, and five ships went north to Gaochang, ruled by a captain Wuji, and turned west to meet Qiuci in the middle road. This is a new road. "The third road west connects Tianzhu, Daxia, Diaozhi and Daqin. Even in the most chaotic period of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the Silk Road trade was not interrupted. Not only did the northern regime maintain economic and cultural exchanges with the western regions, but the commercial road from the western regions to the south was also very smooth. Moreover, the number of China silks far away from Daroma is increasing: around 380 AD, Rome "used to take silks from aristocrats, but now it has spread to all classes, regardless of rank or even the bottom". During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, there were fewer wars in the North and the Silk Road trade flourished again. "Luoyang Ji" Volume III records: "From the west of the jungle, as for Daqin, there are hundreds of countries and thousands of cities, and merchants and Hu merchants attack every day. "More than 10,000 families have settled in Luoyang because of the local conditions in China. In Luoyang, "the world's rare goods can be salty. "> After the reunification of Sui and Tang Dynasties, the Northwest Silk Road entered its heyday. Volume 67 of Sui Shu contains Pei Ju's Preface to the Western Regions, which says: "From Dunhuang to Xihai, there are three roads, each with its own lapels". That is, from Yiwu (Hami), Gaochang and Shanshan to the West Sea (Mediterranean). Pei Ju organized a grand meeting for Emperor Yang Di in Zhangye, met with leaders of 27 western countries, and hosted a banquet for foreign businessmen and envoys in Luoyang, which was attended by thousands of people. Of course, this paid a huge price, but it also promoted the development of the Silk Road trade. Trade on the Silk Road is more prosperous than in the past. Thousands of western conference semifinals came to Chang 'an by land. Mr. Xiang Da's "Chang 'an in Tang Dynasty and Western Civilization" has been described, from street vendors selling Hu cakes to businessmen with assets of hundreds of millions. Businessmen who came to China through the Silk Road settled in Chang 'an for a long time. Mr. Ji Zongan discussed the development and route change of the Silk Road trade in Tang Dynasty. She pointed out that after the rise of West Turkistan, it actively intervened in the silk trade, controlled the Sogdians who were good at trade, and joined forces with Byzantium to attack Persia, and started direct trade with Byzantium, and the trade route gradually moved northward to the northern part of Central Asia controlled by West Turkistan. The scale of trade continued to expand. West Turkestan itself is a huge consumer of silk. King Khan and the people around him brought silk, and their tents were decorated with silk. West Turkistan also exported a large amount of silk to West Asia, South Europe and North Africa, pushing the silk trade to a peak. The big food empire established by * * * conquered Central Asia in the early 8th century, vigorously developed foreign trade and became the most important trade object. In the Western Regions, in the mid-8th century, the Silk Road trade was once again hyped by the Huihe Sima. Sima trade represents the last glory of Silk Road trade. In the late 8th century, maritime trade continued to develop, showing the momentum of catching up. & gt2. The Development of Maritime Trade in Han, Tang and Five Dynasties. For the first time, Geography of Han clearly recorded the routes from China to Southeast Asia and India: starting from Nanzhangsai, Xuwen and Hepu in Japan, passing through Du Yuan, Lu Yi, Jerry Lee and Fugandu Road to Huang Zhi, and starting from Huang Zhi, you can go to Pizong, but you have already left the country. This route starts from Leizhou Peninsula, goes along Indo-China Peninsula in Southeast Asia, reaches the east coast of India, and returns via Ceylon and Sumatra. According to Hanshu, this route was smooth from the period of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty to the Han Dynasty, thus linking China with the western trade circle by sea. As mentioned earlier, Roman merchants also reached the intersection of the Han Dynasty by sea during this period. "After Emperor Huan of the Han Dynasty, Daqin and Tianzhu all contributed by sending envoys in this way." This route shows two-way communication. However, this route is full of hardships. First of all, the return journey takes a long time, from Xuwen to Huang Zhi, and it takes 12 months for one way, regardless of the intermediate delay. It can be seen from its long voyage that it mainly travels along the coast, relying on water targets and guiding stars; Secondly, the voyage is full of dangers such as brutal killing and storm drowning; Third, we should constantly change the guide and the ship, that is, "the barbarian Jia ship turned to it." The commodities flowing on this route are mainly the exchange of pearls, jade, strange stones and gold, and the trade is mainly luxury goods. Maritime trade is also facing the difficulty of long journey and the danger of land. Compared with land, the scale and efficiency of trade have no advantage. On the contrary, it was held in Xuwen and Jiao Jiao, far away from the economic and political centers. Trade can't be compared with Chang 'an Luoyang. & gt During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, maritime traffic became the main channel for the southern regime to communicate with foreign countries, and maritime trade developed greatly. Significant changes are shown in several aspects: First, the trading ports have been moved from Xuwen and Hepu to Jiaozhou and Guangzhou, which have better economic conditions, and the terms of trade have been improved, and the number of foreign businessmen doing business in China has increased significantly. In the fifth year of Sun Wu (226), "Da Qin Jia talked about the word Qin Zhi, and the satrap sent the right to ask about local customs, which was based on facts." Moreover, it is said that China people often go to Minnan, Japan and South China and cross their toes. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the trade between the two countries had a greater development: "Merchant ships traveled far away, entrusted southern States, made old friends, and were as rich as enemies, accumulating a palace." At that time, JIAOZHOU "traveled with the road, merchants made friends" and "connected with Nanyi, treasures came out, and mountains and seas were unique." Guangzhou also has "a high-quality population and ships, and foreign merchants exchange money every year". "The incumbent often makes a fortune, and the world says that" Guangzhou is a secretariat, but once it passes through the city gate, it will get 30 million ",which shows the prosperity of trade. & gt Second, a new route has emerged. The route contained in Geography of Hanshu still starts from the west coast of Hainan Island, with long twists and turns and long return time. At the latest in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, there was a direct route from Southeast Asia to Guangzhou via the eastern part of Hainan Island. Fa Xian of the Eastern Jin Dynasty recorded in The Story of the Buddha Country that Fa Xian returned to China by merchant ship from Sumatra, and his destination was Guangzhou. " Businessmen talk about it one after another, and it takes 50 days to get to Guangzhou by regular trip. Therefore, when they set out, everyone had "350 rations". "In terms of time, it is not like the Han Dynasty, but from the deep sea to Guangzhou. The description of the businessman and the preparation for sailing show that this is a mature route. Chang Jun took this route when he set out for Songkhla, starting from Guangzhou, passing through the deep sea east of Lin Yi, and reaching the capital of songkhla in about 50 days. Faxian went north from Southeast Asia in April, and Chang Jun went south from Guangzhou in 10, both sailing by monsoon. & gt Third, more foreign businessmen and envoys came to China by sea. Lin Yi, Funan, Jura, Tianzhu and Lion are the countries recorded in the seventy-eighth volume of Southern History, and all these countries have diplomatic envoys or business contacts with China. These countries have promoted China's ties with overseas countries. For example, Funanguo, which dominated Southeast Asia at that time, attached great importance to trade. The Sun Wu regime once sent Athena Chu and Kangtai to countries in the South China Sea. " There are hundreds and dozens of countries about their experiences and rumors, and they have written stories about Fu Nan and other countries. "At that time, Fujian was a powerful country in Southeast Asia." Its eastern boundary was connected with Jiaozhou, and its western boundary was connected with Tianzhu and the world, and it belonged to the city. ""there are treasures and goods everywhere. " "Its city meets things, with more than 10,000 people every day. "The powerful south China has become a bridge between China and Southeast Asia and the West. According to Fa Xian's Story of the Buddha, there were about 200 businessmen on the ship that he came to China for trade, which roughly reflected the trade scale at that time.