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Both the Reform Movement of 1898 and the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty took place in the context of a serious national crisis in China.
The Reform Movement of 1898 suffered a crushing defeat in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 and suffered humiliation. Under the circumstances that imperialism set off a frenzy of carve-up and made China's national crisis unprecedentedly serious, the upper-class political representatives of the national bourgeoisie, headed by Kang Youwei, stepped forward and shouted out the loud slogan of "saving the nation from extinction", which promoted the development of the Reform Movement and showed a strong patriotic spirit. Kang Youwei also wrote many times to win the support of Emperor Guangxu, and finally pushed the political reform movement to a climax.
After the failure of the Reform Movement of 1898, a large-scale peasant anti-imperialist patriotic movement organized by the Boxer Rebellion was launched in China. The broad masses of the Boxer held high the banner of "helping the Qing Dynasty to destroy the foreign countries" and pointed the struggle at the imperialist aggressors. In May and June of 1900, the struggle reached a climax. At this time, "Eight-Nation Alliance" invaded China and captured Peiping. After the Western Empress fled to Beijing with Emperor Guangxu, his cronies, slaves and imperialist bandits ravaged vast areas of Beijing, Tientsin, Zhang Bao and Northeast provinces. While fleeing, the Western Empress Dowager issued two orders: to suppress the Boxer Rebellion and surrender to imperialism. The Boxer Rebellion was jointly suppressed by Chinese and foreign reactionary forces, and the Qing government accepted 12 suggestions and outlines put forward by imperialist powers. Since then, imperialism has stepped up its aggression against China, further undermining China's feudal economy; The national capitalist economy, which is in the initial stage of development, has developed again after 1895. 1899- 190 1 3 years, the investment decreased significantly compared with the previous three years, and its average investment was almost one-third of the average investment in the previous three years (Wang Jingyu: Information on Modern Industrial History of China, Volume II). )。 This is not suitable for the national bourgeoisie to develop industry. It was under such historical conditions that the Qing government announced the implementation of the New Deal in 190 1.
From the historical background of the two new policies, we can see the following three similarities: first, the economic base is the same: although the feudal economy is gradually disintegrating, it still dominates; China's national capitalist economy is in the primary stage of development. Second, the class foundation is the same: the landlord class still dominates, but the strength of the emerging national bourgeoisie has developed to a certain extent, especially at the upper level. Finally, in terms of Sino-foreign relations, the Qing government was teetering after the invasion of foreign powers. The differences are as follows: first, the situation of people's struggle is different: the Reform Movement of 1898 appeared after the low tide of mass struggle that lasted for 30 years; The New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty began just after the mass movement. Secondly, the power contrast within the national bourgeoisie in China has changed to a certain extent: due to the failure of the Reform Movement of 1898, some people in the reformists (such as Zhang et al.) have undergone revolutionary changes and strengthened the power of the democratic revolutionaries. The revolutionaries put forward a more radical idea of overthrowing the feudal autocratic regime of the Qing Dynasty, and launched propaganda activities to constantly plan the armed uprising against the Qing Dynasty.
The aims and purposes of the Reform Movement of 1898 and the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty are related to the subjective motives of these two events and should also be compared and analyzed.
The Reform Movement of 1898 was jointly initiated by bourgeois reformists and imperialist political parties. When defining the purpose and purpose, two kinds of people should analyze it separately. However, recent research results prove that the Draft of the Reform Movement of 1898, which was once regarded as the first-hand material for studying the Reform Movement of 1898, was promulgated after Kang Youwei usurped power, and the contents about convening a congress and formulating a constitution were added when he usurped power (see Collection of the History of the Reform Movement of 1898, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1983 edition). Therefore, during the Reform Movement of 1898, the reformists and the imperial party were basically the same. The aim and purpose of the Reform Movement of 1898 was to save the nation and survive. Secondly, it is to strengthen the imperial power and consolidate the throne. Needless to say, Emperor Guangxu also praised the imperial system before and after the Hundred Days Reform (see Collection of History of the Reform Movement of 1898, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1983, pp. 297-300). )。 Third, political reform is to meet the needs of the bourgeoisie. Finally, the implementation of reform and political reform is also aimed at improving the political status of the national bourgeoisie and the imperial party and attacking the post-party and stubborn conservative forces.
The New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty was initiated by the Qing royal family headed by Nora, with westernization as the core force and some bourgeois people participating. The most prominent point of its purpose and purpose is to change the ruling mode to consolidate the imperial power. The imperial edict of 190 1 year 1 month clearly points out: "There are eternal classics, but there are no immutable laws ... those who are difficult to cover the three cardinal guides and the five permanents are as bright as the sun, the moon and the stars, and those who are fickle are ordered to change their strings, which may be like a harp." (Records of Emperor Zong of Qing Dynasty, Volume 476, Page 8- 10. ) Secondly, at that time, the Qing government felt that China was in a "strong neighbor" (Records of Emperor Dezong of the Qing Dynasty, volume 496, page 4. ), therefore, we must reform and strengthen ourselves. 190 1, 10, the imperial edict of the Qing government pointed out: "It is too late to know that the country has reached this point. The only way to save bad luck is to reform and strengthen ourselves ... and there is no other way. " ("Dezong Record of the Qing Emperor" Volume 486, page 14. Third, the Qing government carried out the New Deal to "revitalize" the economy. At that time, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty thought: China "weakened the origin and lamented the early revitalization" ("A Record of Qing Dezong Classics", volume 486, page 15. )。 "Agriculture, industry and commerce, as the foundation of prosperity, should be revitalized in time" (Records of the Qing Emperor, vol. 493, p. 3. )。 Fourth, the implementation of the New Deal is also to divert the attention of the broad masses of the people at home and win over the upper class of the national bourgeoisie. Seeing that the country was "bloated but still complicated", the Qing government used the words "for the benefit of its subjects" and "for the benefit of the people" (Guangxu Dynasty in East Lu Hua), p. 477 1. ) and other banners, develop industry, in order to paralyze the broad masses and find supporters in the upper class of the national bourgeoisie. Finally, in order to maintain its dominant position and not be kicked off by imperialism, the Qing court had to cater to some needs of imperialism. 190 1 in July, the Qing government stated in the imperial edict that "diplomatic relations should be the first priority when the peace treaty was renewed", and according to the requirements of the outline of the peace talks, it ordered that "the Foreign Affairs Department of the Prime Minister should be changed to the Foreign Affairs Department, and the courses should be held before the six departments." ("Guangxu Chaodong Lu Hua", Volume 4) p. 4685. Some economic measures are also beneficial to the capital export of big countries to China.
From the comparison of the above two, we can see that the purpose of the Reform Movement of 1898 and the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty are basically the same, both of which are to consolidate imperial power, transform the country and meet some needs of the bourgeoisie. The difference is that under the new historical conditions, the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty aimed at suppressing the people's struggle and diverting the attention of the mass struggle to meet some needs of imperialism.
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Marxism holds that "a person is certainly judged not by his words, but by his actions" (Engels: German Revolution and Counter-Revolution, Selected Works of Marx and Engels, Volume I, p. 579. )。 The same is true of historical events. It depends not only on the purpose of historical activities, but also on their specific activities. This must begin with the analysis of the main contents of historical activities. Both the Reform Movement of 1898 and the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty carried out a series of reform measures in the economic, political, military and cultural aspects. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between the two New Deal contents will certainly give us new enlightenment.
Economic reform is a prominent aspect of these two new policies. In order to manage agriculture, industry and commerce, during the Reform Movement of 1898, it was stipulated to set up the General Administration of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce and the General Administration of Railways and Mines in Shi Jing. During the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, the Ministry of Commerce was established before 1903, and the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce and the Ministry of Postal Communication were established again in 1906. Both new policies focus on agriculture. During the Reform Movement of 1898, attention was paid to reclamation of wasteland, extensive translation of foreign agricultural books and purchase of agricultural tools, establishment of farmers' associations and publication of agricultural newspapers. During the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, it was put forward: "Commerce is based on industry, and industry is based on agriculture. Unless agriculture is revitalized in advance, the foundation is not established, and industry and commerce have no capital. " ("Qing De Zong Lu" Volume 522, page 2. ) ordered an inventory of land, encouraged land reclamation, and set up reclamation companies, test sites, and agricultural schools (Volume 586 of A Record of Qing De Zong Jing, page 8). )。 At the same time, we also pay attention to translating agricultural books, buying advanced farm tools and building water conservancy projects. In terms of process manufacturing, the Reform Movement of 1898 proposed to imitate western methods, widely install machines, popularize all kinds of process manufacturing, and reward inventions. At the time of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, the same encouragement policy was adopted (Guangxu Chaodong Lu Hua, Volume 5), p. 5709. )。 At that time, various craft bureaus and factories appeared one after another. With the promotion of the Qing government's incentive policy and the efforts of the national bourgeoisie and enlightened gentry, China's national industry has made remarkable progress. In terms of industrial and mining transportation, the Reform Movement of 1898 proposed that under the management of the General Administration of Railways and Mines, railways should be actively built, transportation should be developed, mines should be mined, and post offices should be set up. At the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of 1902, the Mining Regulations were formulated, 1904, the Provisional Mining Regulations were promulgated, and the China Mining Regulations were drafted. Some provinces find competent people to preside over them to show their attention. We should also pay attention to the construction of railways. 1903 The Concise Regulations on Rectifying Railways was promulgated, and the Beijing-Zhangjiakou Railway was built by itself. In terms of telegraph and telephone, it is stipulated that the telegraph and telephone business in China shall be run by the State Electric Power Bureau (pages 5379-5380 of Guangxu East China Annals). )。 In business, during the Reform Movement of 1898, all provinces were required to set up business bureaus, chambers of commerce and business newspapers. , stressing business; During the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, the articles of association of the Ministry of Commerce and the concise articles of persuasion were published in 1903, and the articles of association for the trial registration of the company were published in 1904. In order to promote the development of business, some orders were issued to protect business, take care of business and reward business (Qing De Zong Jing, volume 520, page 4). ), as well as Chinese businessmen and foreign businessmen commodity tax equality letters ("Qingde Zongdi Record", volume 56 1, page 1. )。 In the financial aspect: during the Reform Movement of 1898, it was proposed to reform the financial system, compile the national budget, and publish the income and expenditure on a monthly basis; However, by the end of the Qing Dynasty, attention was paid to minting coins and issuing paper money, and the articles of association of pilot banks were promulgated, and banks such as Qing Dynasty, Ye Quan, commercial banks and some local banks appeared.
Both New Deal attach importance to political reform. Mainly manifested in the adjustment of institutions, abolition of idle officials and redundant staff, rectification of official management, and strengthening authoritarian rule. In terms of institutional adjustment, during the Reform Movement of 1898, the State Administration for Industry and Commerce and the General Administration of Railways and Mines were established, while Zhan Shifu, the General Political Department, Guanglu Temple, Taipu Temple, Honglin Temple and Dali Temple were abolished and merged into the Cabinet and the Ministry of Ritual and Punishment. The governors of Hubei, Guangdong and Yunnan provinces in the same city were abolished, and the governors of these three provinces were responsible for governor affairs. The Governor of Henan Province is responsible for removing the post of Governor of Donghe. It also requires local governments to abolish idle officials and redundant staff. During the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, the Supervision Department was set up, the Prime Minister's yamen was changed into the Foreign Affairs Department, and business departments, training departments, inspection departments and school departments were also set up. 1906, the official system was re-formulated, and it was decided to set up eleven departments besides the Cabinet and the Military Department: Foreign Affairs Department, Official Department, Civil Affairs Department, Commerce Department, Education Department, Legal Department, Agriculture, Industry and Commerce Department, Posts and Telecommunications Department and Administration Department. In addition, the Dali Temple was changed to the Dali Academy, while the Ducha Academy and the Hanlin Academy were retained, adding a senior counseling institute, an auditing institute and a military advisory office (the Qing Draft (IV), p. 956; See Record of Qing Dezong, Volume 564, page 12- 13. )。 Incorporate the Zhan government into imperial academy, and reduce the General Political Department, Taichang Temple, Guanglu Temple, Split Temple, Taibu Temple and Discipline Department. , and incorporate them into does and ministry of war respectively. From 1904 to 1905, the governors of Yunnan, Hubei and Guangdong provinces were also abolished (Guangxu faced east Lu Hua, p. 5257). ), the abolition of Donghe Governor and Guangdong Customs, Huai 'an Customs and Jiangnan Weaving Yamen, Fujian Navy prefect, etc. This problem was mentioned during the Reform Movement of 1898. In the late Qing Dynasty, the sale of donated officials was restricted. 190 1 announced: "No matter what cases are reported afterwards, it is forbidden to donate real officials" ("Guangxu Chaodong Lu Hua", total (4) page 47 18. )。 Some corrupt local officials were also punished. For example, in 1903, the Sichuan army ordered Chen Tang to "give up the original product" and his son Chen Dahao "was greedy for profits, ostentatiously interfered with official duties, and was dismissed as soon as he wrote it" (Record of the Qing Emperor, vol. 52 1, p. 65438+). )。 During the two New Deal, we did not forget to strengthen autocratic rule: during the Reform Movement of 1898, it was stipulated to organize Jiabao and organize group training; In the late Qing Dynasty, police officers were trained and police services were carried out, which came from Zhili in advance and then spread to all provinces. 1905, the police department was established. In addition, it also changed the standard bearer's support system. This problem was mentioned in the reform movement of 1898. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, it was announced that the standard-bearer should "stand on his own feet" (A Record of De Zong Jing of Qing Dynasty, vol. 505, page 2). ), "advised the daughter of the flag soldiers to learn to raise silkworms to benefit their vitality" ("A Record of the Qing Dezong Classics", volume 578, page 4. )。 Pay attention to some democracy. During the Reform Movement of 1898, all subjects, big and small, were allowed to write and talk about things freely, and to run newspapers and schools freely. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, we paid attention to the reform of the penal system, abolished severe punishment and severe laws, and stipulated that "all capital crimes will be beheaded, and the three items of capital crimes, beheading and corpse slaughter will be deleted forever." "Tattoos, etc. , are generally abolished "("Guangxu Chaodong Lu Hua ",total volume 5) on page 5328. )。 And ordered to stop torture, change the penalty to a fine, or "converted to hard labor" and so on ("Guangxu Chaodong Lu Hua", volume 5) on page 5329. )。
Strengthening army building is also one of the important contents of the two new policies. During the Reform Movement of 1898, it was stipulated that "green camp should be reduced", the Qing army changed its foreign guns to foreign training, adopted the western military system, raised funds to build more warships, expanded the naval strength, increased the number of students in the naval academy, and trained naval talents. During the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, before August of 190 1, the imperial examination system for martial arts was abolished (General Lu Hua of Guangxu Dynasty (IV), p. 4697). )。 He also ordered "the establishment of armament schools in provincial capitals, with a view to cultivating ordinary talents and becoming a strong team" (Records of Guangxu Chaodong Dialect, p. 47 18). )。 At the same time, pay attention to reducing the old army and training the new army. For example, in 190 1 year, the Qing dynasty ordered that "the original defense forces of green camp in all provinces will be reduced by two or three tenths this year, and the brave camp added last year should also be cancelled as appropriate." ("Guangxu Chaodong Lu Hua", p. 4695. "Select several battalions and divide them into standing, reserve, patrol and other units, all of which are trained in new firearms and carefully trained to become a strong force." ("Guangxu Chaodong Lu Hua", p. 47 18-47 19. ) 1903 promulgated the "new barracks salary system", 1907 drafted 36 towns to train new troops nationwide. Before the revolution broke out in 19 1 1, the whole country was organized into sixteen towns. In addition, he also pays attention to the construction of the navy. Zhang Zhidong advocated scrapping ships and building new ones. At the same time, he also sent personnel to learn from the navy and rectify the navy.
The two New Deal paid special attention to culture and education, including reforming the imperial examination system, setting up new schools and sending overseas students. First, reform and abolish the imperial examination system. During the Reform Movement of 1898, it was ordered to start from the next subject, and all those who used four books and essays should try their best. Later, it was stipulated that there would still be three township examinations, one on history and politics, two on current affairs, three on four books and five classics, and it was also required to set up a special economics course to select talents. During the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, the imperial examination system was reformed for the first time, and 190 1 abolished the "eight-part essay program" (Guangxu faced east Lu Hua), total (5), p. 4992. )。 1903, Zhang Zhidong and others put forward the idea of gradually abolishing the imperial examination system. 1905, in order to set up a new school, he once again called for the abolition of the imperial examination. The Qing government adopted the suggestions of Zhang Zhidong and others, and decided to "stop all rural examinations and all provincial examinations from the subject of C-noon (1906)." ("Guangxu Chaodong Lu Hua", Volume 5) p. 5392. In the late Qing Dynasty, an economic course was specially set up. Secondly, establish new schools and spread western learning. During the Reform Movement of 1898, all localities were required to set up new schools and advocate western learning. 1898 In August, Shi Jing University Hall was established in Beijing, which stipulated that there should be more primary and secondary schools and various specialized schools in all provinces. At the time of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, it paid more attention to talents, saying, "Talents are the key to politics" (The Classic of the Qing Emperor, vol. 483, p. 13. )。 Therefore, vigorously set up various schools. 190 1, demanding that "all provincial academies should be changed into provincial university halls, and there should be more schools in all states and zhili middle schools, primary schools in all states and counties." ("Guangxu East Lu Hua", Volume 4, Page 47 19. ) 1904, Zhang Zhidong, etc. formulated the "Regulations of Playing School", which was promulgated and implemented, and promoted the running of the school. At the same time, the Qing dynasty also paid special attention to the establishment of normal schools, pointing out: "Primary schools are the top priority of opening Chinese studies and general education. It is the primary school teacher, teaching primary school normal students, especially the first meaning of running a school. " ("Playing School Charter", printed in the 30th year of Guangxu. At that time, there was an upsurge in running schools in China. In Beijing, the management and rectification of Shi Jing University Hall have been strengthened, and the school building and scale have been expanded. Across the country, a large number of schools of all levels and types have emerged. Third, send international students to study abroad. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Emperor Guangxu issued a decree requiring all provinces to send students to study and travel abroad. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the sending of overseas students in China reached a climax, and the Qing government ordered all provinces to send students with "correct thinking and clear arts and sciences" (Record of Qing De Zong Jing, vol. 492, p. 10). ), send them to study abroad at public expense, and also pay attention to send the imperial clan and the children of the Eight Banners to study abroad. At the same time, they were encouraged to study abroad at their own expense, and later they were called upon to study in Europe and America. With the call of the Qing government and the efforts of the provinces, with the struggle of young students and the strong support of their families, the number of official and self-funded international students has soared year by year.
Comparing the main contents of the Reform Movement of 1898 and the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, we can see that the policies pursued by the two New Deal in economic, political, military, cultural and educational aspects are basically the same or similar. Therefore, we can say that the Western Empress Dowager took the Reform Movement of 1898 that she overthrew, and continued to complete the reforms and reforms that her "enemy" had not completed.
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The difference between the Reform Movement of 1898 and the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty is highlighted in the leaders of the incident and their respective consequences.
The Reform Movement of 1898 was a combination of China national bourgeois reformists and imperial party led by * * *, which opposed the westernization bureaucrats and post-party in Qing Dynasty. The New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty was implemented by the post-party headed by the Western Empress Dowager and the royal family of the Qing Dynasty with the support of westernization bureaucrats. Emperor Guangxu had no real power, and the individual figures of the emerging national bourgeoisie only served as a foil to this new policy. For example, Zhang Jian, after the establishment of the Ministry of Commerce, became a senior adviser to the academic officials of the Ministry (A Record of Qing De Zong Jing, volume 528, page 1. )。
The result of the Reform Movement of 1898 was different from that of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty. 1898 The reform movement only lasted 103 days. After the coup, almost all the measures of the Hundred Days Reform were cancelled. The New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty lasted for ten years. And it has both positive and negative consequences.
The consequences of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty are outstanding, which should be explained first. There are four main reasons: First, holding the New Deal requires a lot of money. In order to solve the problem, the Qing government continuously distributed funds to the provinces. For example,190365438+February 24th, two imperial edicts on the allocation of funds, the amount of money distributed nationwide reached 9.62 million each year (Records of the Qing Dynasty, vol. 523, pp. 4-7). )。 And the provinces have to spend money to hold various important policies, which greatly increases the burden on the people. Moreover, the Qing government implemented the New Deal on the premise of repaying a large number of foreign debts and indemnities every year, which made it necessary to search for the broad masses of working people more frantically, made people's lives poorer, and social contradictions were extremely acute. Second, at the end of the Qing Dynasty, some warlord forces appeared in various places, especially Yuan Shikai, the head of Beiyang warlord, who took the opportunity to control the troops of six towns in Beiyang. He became the most powerful and extremely reactionary figure at that time. Third, the New Deal provided certain conditions for imperialism to continue to invest in China and control the social economy of China. For example, in March of 1902, Article 19 of the draft Mining Regulations stipulated that mining in China "can be carried out according to the regulations regardless of foreign businessmen" (Guangxu faces East Lu Hua, total (5) p. 4836. )。 Finally, during the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, the police and the new army were trained, which strengthened the feudal state machine of the Qing Dynasty and strengthened the suppression of the people.
Despite the adverse consequences of the New Deal and the drawbacks of the New Deal (see Zhang Kaiyuan's History of the Revolution of 1911, Volume I, page 18 1- 182). )。 However, it is still necessary to comprehensively discuss and analyze. Lenin pointed out: "When analyzing any social problem, the absolute requirement of Marxist theory is to bring the problem into a certain historical range" (Selected Works of Lenin, Volume II, page 5 12. )。 "The merits and demerits of history are not judged by the fact that historical activists have not provided what modern times need, but by the fact that they have provided something newer than their predecessors." (Complete Works of Lenin, Volume II, p. 150. When we study the history of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty today, we should put the problem into the historical scope at that time. When we judge the historical merits and demerits of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, we should also compare and analyze the new things provided by the New Deal with the previous history. After a calm comparison, the author thinks that the New Deal itself in the late Qing Dynasty and under the influence of the New Deal, some noteworthy changes have indeed taken place in China society, which mainly include the following eight points.
1. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, China's national capitalist economy developed significantly. First of all, private industry is developing rapidly, and various factories are increasing. Especially in 1909 and 19 10, more than 2,800 factories were set up (Zhen Chen et al.: Information on Modern Industrial History of China, Series I, p. 1 1 page). )。 It has reached the peak of the number of factories set up in the early stage of national industrial development. At the same time, the total investment also increased rapidly: 1906, 1907, 1908, and * * * invested more than 53 million yuan. The average annual investment is nearly17.7 million yuan, and the total annual investment has reached the peak of the initial development stage. Secondly, private mining has also developed: in the primary development stage of national capitalism of 1895- 19 10, 80 private mining companies were established, such as Huachang Antimony Refining Company, the famous brother of Liang Huankui in Changsha, Hunan Province, which produced high-quality antimony. (Records of Hunan Province and Events in the Last Hundred Years, pp. 246-245. Third, the commercial and financial undertakings of China's national capital have also developed. The development of China's national capitalist industrial and mining enterprises has increased its competitiveness with imperialist powers.
Second, China has made great progress in land development. Due to the emphasis on land development during the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, reclamation companies were established in various places, and the provinces paid more attention to it, with remarkable results. Especially in Heilongjiang province, the land development in this period entered a "full release period". 1904- 19 10, the cultivated land area in Heilongjiang province increased from 347,909 to 6,547,895 (Li Wenzhi: Information on Modern Agricultural History in China, the first series, p. 800. ), more than quadrupled.
Third, with the rapid development of China's national capitalist economy, the class strength of China's national bourgeoisie, especially the middle and lower classes, has grown significantly, and the strength of bourgeois revolutionaries has also developed. In this sense, the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty promoted the bourgeois democratic revolutionary movement.
With the development of national industry, the ranks of the working class are also growing rapidly. On the eve of the Revolution of 1911, the number of industrial workers in China had increased to more than 660,000, which became an important anti-imperialist and anti-feudal force in China at that time.
5. During the late Qing Dynasty, great changes took place in China's army. Before the 19 1 1 revolution, it had been organized into sixteen new towns. Soldiers of the new army, who use foreign guns, practice foreign exercises and accept the domination of new officers, have also been greatly influenced ideologically. Especially when the bourgeois democratic revolutionary thought spread deeply, the new army became the main position for revolutionaries to publicize and launch armed uprisings.
Sixth, the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty ended the history of the imperial examination system. This requirement was put forward during the Reform Movement of 1898. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, Zhang Zhidong and others pointed out: "With the continuation of the imperial examination, all scholars were lucky enough to win the first place to share their ambition of tempering and practicing. The people are more willing to wait and see, and there are few private schools, which cannot be popularized with public financial resources, and the school is hopeless." ("Guangxu Chaodong Lu Hua", p. 5390. The Qing government eliminated the interference of stubborn conservatives, adopted the suggestions of Zhang Zhidong and others, and abolished the imperial examination system, which was an outstanding achievement of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty.
7. There was an upsurge in running schools in the late Qing Dynasty. 1898 The only achievement left by the reform movement was the establishment of Shi Jing University Hall. During the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, Shi Jing University Hall was seriously reorganized and expanded. The Qing government also ordered many provinces to set up new schools and published school rules. As a result, new schools have sprung up in various provinces. For example, in 1907, there were 127 schools in Shi Jing and more than 4,500 schools in Zhili. By 19 1 1, the number of schools in China had increased to more than 52,500, and the total number of students reached1560,000 (see Zhang Kaiyuan's History of the Revolution of 1911, p. 373). )。
Eighth, there has been a wave of overseas students in China. As early as the Westernization Movement, some Westernization bureaucrats began to send overseas students, but the number was very limited. The Reform Movement of 1898 also raised the issue of sending overseas students, but the reform soon failed and did not become a reality. However, during the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, there was a wave of overseas students. For example, during the period of 1905- 1906, there were as many as 8,000 students studying in Japan alone. Overseas students played a decisive role in the history of bourgeois-democratic revolution in China. Before the Revolution of 1911, overseas students became grave diggers of the Qing government. In this sense, without the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, there would be no Xinhai Revolution of 19 1 1.
To sum up, we can easily see that compared with the Reform Movement of 1898 and its previous history, the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty achieved remarkable results. As far as the whole activity of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty is concerned, we have reason to believe that no matter what political purpose the rulers of the Qing Dynasty had, the New Deal reflected some interests and demands of the emerging bourgeoisie. The New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty was a capitalist reform that lacked the leadership and active participation of the national bourgeoisie.