Physics not only explains the material world around us, but also creates a theoretical method and experimental system with rich content, meticulous thinking, constant innovation and endless fun. The modern physical revolution in the 20th century was related to the physical situation from 19 to the turn of the 20th century. At that time, there were two so-called dark clouds over physics, which made some physicists exclaim that there was a physics crisis. The revolution of modern physics not only solved the crisis brought by two dark clouds, but also put the whole physics on the basis of modern physics based on quantum theory and relativity. The New York Times
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/kloc-On the last day of the 0/9th century, famous European scientists once got together. At the meeting, Thomson, a famous British physicist, recalled the great achievements made in physics and said that the physics building had been built, leaving only some decoration work. At the same time, when looking forward to the future of physics in the 20th century, he mused that the dynamics theory affirmed that heat and light are two modes of movement, but in its beautiful and clear sky, they are two flowers. These two dark clouds have now been dispelled by quantum theory and relativity, although today's physics does face some important theoretical and experimental problems that need to be solved urgently, such as the energy problem of quasars, the problems of dark matter, dark energy and antimatter, the cosmic term of Einstein's field equation, neutrino oscillation, proton decay and so on. But so far, no physicist has exclaimed the crisis of physics like 19 in the 20th century. Although the expansion and application of relativity and quantum theory in various fields of science have achieved great success, science is endless and has not reached a perfect stage. It seems that physics, which has always been a model of precision science, has not lost its charm, and its position as the basis of other empirical sciences will not change in the short term. Now the focus of our scientific and technological development has begun to tilt towards life science and information science, but physics is still the foundation and mathematics is still the foundation and important tool, which has not changed. The great charm of physics is that it extends many technical principles from theoretical understanding. In the 20th century, physics provided our society with four new technological principles, namely, nuclear energy technology and semiconductor technology, including large-scale integrated circuit technology, laser technology and superconducting technology. Semiconductor technology and laser technology have also spawned network technology. Although after the revolution of modern physics in the 20th century, in about 3/4 centuries, there have been no new fundamental revolutionary major changes in physics, and the progress of physics is mainly manifested in the perfection and popularization of relativistic quantum theory, but this does not mean that the development of physics has come to an end.
At the end of 19, the classical physics theory has developed to a quite complete stage. Several departments-mechanics, thermodynamics O-~? k % & gtb
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Science and molecular motion theory, electromagnetism and optics have established a complete theoretical system and made great achievements in application.
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Great achievement. Its main sign is that the mechanical motion of an object strictly abides by Newton's force "Wl43jVl" when the speed is much less than the speed of light.
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The law of learning; Electromagnetic phenomena summed it up as Maxwell equations; The phenomenon of light has the theory of light fluctuation, which finally comes down to Mike +W7XX. ! & gt
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Swe equation; Thermal phenomena have theories of thermodynamics and statistical physics. At that time, the development of physics seemed to have reached Q8ADI & Y.
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Reached the peak. Therefore, most physicists think that important laws of physics have been discovered, and there will be no great discoveries, qOxStC.
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This theory is quite perfect. The future work is nothing more than making some supplements and corrections, improving the experimental accuracy and theoretical details, and making T=y*vF.
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Measure constants more accurately. Kelvin, a famous British physicist, once said in an article about physics in the 20th century.
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Talking about: "In the science building that has been basically built, later physicists only need to do some piecemeal repair work." rQU * " V；
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However, when the field of physics is immersed in the joy of satisfaction, a series of important discoveries emerge from the experiment .4 #: ` "(# ~ u
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New phenomena such as solid specific heat, blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect and atomic structure cdots cdots all involve L 'NSG >. y
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The microscopic process can't be explained by the established classical theory, especially the true U'f = wt-
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According to the test law, the Rayleigh-Jenkins formula obtained by classical theory is in good agreement with the experimental results in the low frequency part.} [g = "k
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However, with the increase of frequency, the radiation energy increases monotonously and tends to infinity at high frequency, that is, it diverges at the purple end, z\eru+w).
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This situation is called "ultraviolet disaster" by Ellen Fister. The "zero result" of Michelson-Morey experiment makes E[]8v~%
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Inexplicably, the experimental results show that there is no "ether drift", which shocked physicists and reflected the classic * IPY | F.
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Neo-Confucianism is facing severe challenges. These two things were called "the remoteness in the clear sky of physics" by the physics authority at that time. 2*'enNPfw
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There are also two small and disturbing dark clouds. However, it is these two small dark clouds that bring a WYPW: q to physics.
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A profound revolution. Tr#p？ notary
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The following table lists the major experimental discoveries in physics at the turn of the century.
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1895。 X-rays found! Special drawing rights, S \；; @
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1896。 mbox { Bekkerel } &； Mbox{ radioactivity found} D[#d@ OK+P]
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1896。 Mbox{ Zeeman} & Mbox{ magnetic field splitting line found}! # & ltj[& lt； Ask \
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1897。 Mbox{J.J Thomson}&; Mbox{ discover electron}: f > H#x4[
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1898。 Mbox{ Curie couple}&; Mbox{ discovery of radioactive elements polonium and radium} {*D:"m
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1899 - 1900。 Mbox{ Lummel and Rubens et al.}&; Mbox{ it is found that the thermal radiation energy distribution curve deviates from Wien distribution rate} p:-0F|0
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190 1。 Mbox{ Kaufman} & Mbox{ found that electron mass increases with speed} t{fGs]Y39t
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1902。 Mbox{ Lenard} & Mbox{ Discovering the Basic Law of Photoelectric Effect} (9YT m)
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1902。 Discovered the law of thermionic emission
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1903。 mbox { Rutherford } &； Mbox{ Discovering the Metamorphosis Law of Radioactive Elements} {CD R WXR]
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These new physical phenomena break the dull air and lead people's attention to a deeper and wider world; Department @7 > EU
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There is a sharp contradiction between the new discovery and the theoretical system of classical physics, which exposes the hidden dangers in classical physics theory, referring to TiB bxb[
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Out of the limitations of classical physics, physics can only be improved from concepts, basic assumptions, theoretical systems and so on. 2UUha
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Only through radical changes can we adapt to the new situation. 8\9Hb(Y
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Because of these new discoveries, physics is facing a great development: *b6F+nM.
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1. The discovery of the electron broke the traditional concept of atomic inseparability and opened up a new field of atomic research. 4x`VTx
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2. The discovery of radioactivity promoted the research of radiology and made necessary preparations for nuclear physics; Ig-`]PMht
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3. The exploration of etheric drift makes etheric theory in many contradictions. In order to fundamentally abandon the hypothesis that ether exists, a narrow sense of "RV" is established; Y
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4. The study of blackbody radiation leads to the discovery of Planck's law of blackbody radiation, from which the energy quantum hypothesis is put forward. 30|=; OXU8
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The establishment of the first shot. 7; jF7R。
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In short, at the turn of the century, physics is in the stage of alternation between the old and the new. This period is 23MJ]hD.wW in the history of physics development.
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In the Fan period, the complete architecture of classical theory and two dark clouds floating in the distance in the clear sky formed the painting x/b}eW Rs at the end of 19.
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Volume; At the beginning of the 20th century, new phenomena and theories mushroomed, and the ideological trend in the field of physics was extremely active, which was called physics Y#JR@@pQ.
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The contradiction between these new phenomena and the classical theory forces people to break through the framework of the original theory and get rid of the classical O @ mikuh ~.
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Bound by theory, we should explore new laws and establish new theories in micro-theory. N_lYKX3
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At the beginning of the 20th century, new experimental facts constantly found that classical physics had some difficulties in explaining some phenomena, among which the performance was the most @u` P e7m.
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The following three problems are obvious and prominent: 1. Black body radiation problem; 2. Photoelectric effect; 3. Atomic stability and atomic A A =, 94
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Thermal radiation is a new subject developed in 19 century. Its research is supported by thermodynamics and spectroscopy, and +` K cT@z is also used.
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Emerging technologies in electromagnetism and optics were introduced, so they developed rapidly. By the end of 19, a gap has been opened in this field, namely f8JgByS3v.
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The study of blackbody radiation led to the birth of quantum theory. rlxKh33
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In order to obtain the law of blackbody radiation consistent with the experiment, many physicists have made various attempts. VpgADX/q
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1893, German physicist Winhelmwein (1864-1928) put forward the law of blackbody radiation energy distribution, namely _#jJ~
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Wayne formula. The formula is in good agreement with the experimental results in the short wave part, but it is obvious in the long wave part. :U)[AvD
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It doesn't match the experiment. 1900, British physicists Rayleigh and J.H. Jenkins put forward another radiation law, 7d ddsx >；; \
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The Rayleigh-Jenkins formula is consistent with the observation in the long wave part, but quite different from the experiment in the short wave (high frequency) part, -gNRa$I*, o
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It led to the so-called "ultraviolet disaster". This "disaster" makes most physicists keenly see that classical physics is facing serious lyc\[r[:I].
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Li Xingmin: The Emergence and Essence of Physics Crisis
Based on the investigation of the emergence of physics crisis and physicists' response to the crisis, this paper focuses on the essence of physics crisis. The author thinks that the crisis of physics is mainly the crisis of physics itself, and its philosophical expression comes from the crisis of physics itself. Moreover, the crisis of philosophy is mainly the crisis of mechanical materialism. c# e & lt； #tX
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First, the emergence of physical crisis.
Since Newton's masterpiece Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy was published in 1687, physics has basically developed within the theoretical framework of Newtonian mechanics in the next two hundred years. By the late19th century, classical physics had formed a rigorous theoretical system, which could explain almost all known physical phenomena. At that time, physicists who were confined to the mechanistic view of nature generally believed that all physical phenomena could be explained from the perspective of mechanics, and the future physical truth could only be found after the sixth decimal point. 4p#^k<； o
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While physicists are complacent and blindly optimistic, some experimental facts have cast a shadow in their hearts. 1887. Through accurate experiments, Michelson and Morey found that there was no obvious relative motion between the earth and the ether, thus shaking the popular Fresnel static ether theory. However, static ether theory is not only required by electromagnetic theory, but also supported by earlier aberration phenomenon and Fizeau experiment. In this way, the mechanical model of ether as a light phenomenon and electromagnetic phenomena propagation medium is difficult to justify in nature, and the mechanical basis of optics and electromagnetism is facing some dangers. M3/H
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New experimental facts that can't be explained by classical theory, that is, the so-called "abnormal phenomenon", come one after another, and the experimental results of gas specific heat also have a sharp conflict with the energy equipartition theorem. /kloc-In the mid-9th century, Boltzmann and Maxwell put forward the theorem of energy equipartition, which can explain many phenomena and give satisfactory answers to the specific heat of general solid and monatomic gases at room temperature. For diatomic and polyatomic gases, the ratio of measured constant pressure heat capacity to constant volume heat capacity is obviously larger than the theoretical calculation value. Kelvin 1900, in his speech at the Royal Society on April 27th, 2000, once called the above two problems "the dark clouds hanging over the dynamic theory of heat and light in19th century". \ & lt|+oT6@
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Kelvin, after all, sees the sky of physics too clearly. In fact, there were not only "two dark clouds" in the sky of physics at that time. As early as before his speech, it was already "dark clouds are pressing the city to destroy" and "the rain is coming and the wind is full"! In fact, at the end of19th century, the experimental facts such as photoelectric effect, blackbody radiation and atomic spectrum were seriously opposed to the classical physical theory. =b3i 1eYA88
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The crisis of physics can be said to have really started after 1895. Especially because of the discovery and research of radioactivity, it has strongly impacted the traditional view of matter that atoms are inseparable and their mass remains unchanged. Even those who stubbornly adhere to the old ideas can't oppose a lot of conclusive experimental evidence, and can only take a wait-and-see attitude at most. V @ & amp|yc，h
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1895165438+1from October 8 to February 28, roentgen discovered X-rays while studying cathode rays in the laboratory of the University of Wü rzburg, Germany. Roentgen's discovery not only caused surprise, but also caused a sensation. It opened a wonderful new world. Subsequently, a series of new discoveries, such as uranium radioactivity (1896), electrons (1897), radioactive elements polonium and radium (1898), which hit the theoretical basis of classical physics, followed one after another. On this basis, Rutherford and Soddy put forward the theory of element transmutation in 1902. {HDnE~
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This series of new discoveries not only shook the foundation of the whole physics, but also impacted the mechanical view of nature that dominated the natural science field for more than 200 years, so the so-called physics crisis appeared. Faced with new things that could not be brought into the framework of mechanical theory, some scientists at that time appeared strange theories such as "matter disappeared" and "science went bankrupt" All this has caused some ideological confusion in the field of physics, further deepening the seriousness of the physics crisis. h%L？ french standard
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Second, physicists' response to the crisis.
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How do physicists view the crisis of physics at the turn of the century? U3wk h qlB
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Physicists at that time didn't realize the crisis of physics at first, at least didn't realize the seriousness of the crisis. They still firmly believe that the theoretical framework of classical mechanics is the foundation of the whole theoretical physics building and the root of all other branches of science. It never occurred to anyone that the whole foundation of physics might need to be fundamentally reformed. Pu; (r%s。
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Kelvin is a veteran of the British scientific community. He didn't realize the crisis of physics. He just thinks that the development of physics is only a few serious difficulties, and these difficulties can be solved one by one through appropriate schemes without touching the whole foundation of physics. Therefore, he is often skeptical about new experiments and new theories that shake this foundation, and even openly stands out against it. ! m+ zf9]
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The problem of blackbody radiation that caused the so-called "ultraviolet disaster" greatly aggravated the crisis of classical physics. However, even Wayne, Rayleigh, Lorenz and others who were deeply involved in this problem at that time did not realize this crisis. They tried to solve the problem within the framework of classical theory, so they never found the right way out. Even Planck, the founder of quantum theory, didn't realize this crisis at that time. Therefore, his entrepreneurship is not conscious, but forced. No wonder Planck began to hesitate after taking a crucial step. He suspected that there might be some defects in his deduction, and tried his best to reconcile quantum theory with classical theory. As for Wayne and Rayleigh, they didn't agree with the concept of quantum until 1905. Lorenz also said that when 1908 gave a speech in Rome, it was difficult to accept Planck's theory. 0r$P_k
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In Boltzmann's view, there is actually a crisis, but it is only a philosophical crisis, and physics itself is not a crisis. Boltzmann 1904 said in a speech at the international conference on technology and science held in St. Louis, USA that the problem lies in philosophical mistakes, not in uncorrectable shortcomings in scientific research. The rapid development of physics clearly shows that the mistake lies in entrusting the task of studying some common features, such as the essence of causality, the concepts of matter and force, to philosophy. "Philosophy is obviously powerless in clarifying these issues." Boltzmann believes that the struggle with philosophy is the first condition for the liberation of physics, so he fought this struggle very fiercely. Boltzmann is a firm mechanical materialist, and what he opposes is of course some idealistic philosophical schools. He did this because before and after his death, idealism philosophy represented by positivism was widely popular, and many people mistakenly thought that the crisis of physics led to the bankruptcy of science and the failure of materialism, which caused some ideological confusion. For example, ostwald declared that the development of physics was facing a crisis. To eliminate this crisis, we can only rely on the philosophy of material disappearance and endow the attributes of entities with energy (that is, energy theory). Pearson also claimed that "the current crisis actually lies in", "people regard matter as the basic concept of physics" and "it seems obvious now that electricity must be more fundamental than matter officials." Pearson draws an idealistic conclusion from this: "It is completely unnecessary to desire to give objectivity to every concept." These once fashionable philosophies can easily lead physics astray, and Boltzmann's resolute opposition to them is commendable. However, his practice did not and could not achieve great results, because mechanical materialism, as his combat weapon, also fell into a profound crisis. Moreover, he categorically denied that there was a crisis in physics itself, which made him unable to prescribe the right medicine. Therefore, although Boltzmann made outstanding contributions to the development of classical physics earlier, he failed to see the necessity and urgency of changing the classical theory and its foundation during the great physical revolution at the turn of the century, nor did he put forward predictive opinions on the situation of the physics revolution that had already appeared. *FR0-HlR
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Before 1905, Einstein was still an unknown young man, so he could not make many speeches and articles public. However, from his later memories and other relevant materials, we can clearly see that Einstein had profound insight and unique insight into the crisis of physics at the turn of the century. On the basis of previous experiments and research work, Einstein saw that the physical crisis was manifested in two basic aspects. One is the serious disharmony between the two theoretical systems of mechanics and electrodynamics. In this regard, he believes that the way out of the crisis lies in getting rid of the dominant dogmatic stubbornness and abandoning the concepts of absolute space and absolute time, thus finding a reliable new foundation for the whole physics. The second is that Planck's research on thermal radiation makes people suddenly realize the seriousness of the crisis. It's like the foundation is dug from below, and there is no solid foundation to build anywhere. It is worth noting that Einstein further realized the theoretical basis of classical physics, that is, the crisis of its basic concepts and principles, through some contradictions between experimental facts and old theories. Therefore, he gradually despaired of the possibility of using constructive efforts to discover real laws according to known facts; He is convinced that only by discovering a universal formal principle can reliable results be obtained. Because Einstein had a profound insight into the crisis and outlet of physics, he was able to make an epoch-making breakthrough in the above two aspects in one fell swoop in 1905, completely opening up a new situation of the physics revolution and making it possible for physics to eliminate the crisis. ^aNkh,S，
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Among the celebrities in the scientific community at that time, the French mathematician, physicist and astronomer Henry? In the Value of Science published in 1905, Poincare was the first to clearly put forward the crisis of physics, and made a comprehensive analysis and discussion on it. Poincare believes that the crisis of physics is an irreconcilable contradiction between new experimental discoveries and the basic principles of classical physics. Crisis is a good thing, not a bad thing. It foreshadows the coming changes (Poincare praised radium as "the great revolution of the contemporary era") and is a precursor for physics to enter a new stage. He correctly pointed out that in order to get rid of the crisis, we must transform physics on the basis of new experimental facts and let mechanics give way to a wider concept. He repeatedly affirmed the intrinsic value of classical theory and sharply criticized the wrong argument of "scientific bankruptcy". He also foresaw the general situation of new mechanics and was full of confidence in the future of science.
Third, the essence of the physics crisis *! Ito}T
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Although Poincare devoted a chapter to the crisis of physics in The Value of Science (Chapter 8: The Current Crisis of Physics), he mainly looked at the problem from the perspective of physics, but he did not give full play to this point from the perspective of epistemology. As Lenin said, "he is not interested in the philosophical aspect of this problem." Sg:N=v\
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However, Ley, a French writer of philosophical problems, discussed this aspect in great detail in his book The Theory of Physics of Modern Physicists (1907). When talking about the essence of the physics crisis, Ley said that in the first 60 years of the19th century, physicists were consistent with each other on all basic issues. They believe in the pure mechanical explanation of nature, and they think that physics is nothing more than more complex mechanics, that is, molecular mechanics. They just have differences on the method that physics belongs to mechanics and the details of mechanics. Now, the science of physical chemistry shows us the opposite. Serious differences have replaced the previous agreement, and this difference is not in the details, but in the basic and dominant ideas. On the one hand, Ley pointed out that the crisis of physics is "a typical development crisis caused by new discoveries" and "the crisis will lead to the reform of physics (without this, there will be no evolution and progress)", "thus starting a new period." "Historians who observe events in a few years will easily see a constant evolution, while modern people only see conflicts, contradictions and divisions into various schools. It seems that the crisis that physics has experienced in recent years also belongs to this situation (no matter what conclusions philosophical criticism makes according to this crisis). " On the other hand, Ley also pointed out that "the criticism of the traditional mechanism destroyed the premise of this ontological reality of the mechanism. On the basis of this criticism, the philosophy of physics was established. " "According to this view, science is only the formula of symbols and the method of marking." (Quoted from literature [5], pp. 259-262, 3112, and only the page number is quoted below) Lenin emphasized after analyzing the physical crisis and Ley's comments: "The essence of the physical crisis. (page 264)! pE^K
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At present, there are two different views on the essence of physics crisis. The first view is that Lenin emphasized two aspects of the crisis, namely physics and philosophy. For example, some people say that these two aspects are: first, this is the contradiction between old concepts, theories, principles and the latest discoveries in physics; Second, deny the existence of objective reality outside consciousness. Although some people think that the crisis of physics is caused by the combination of the reform of physics theory and the conclusion of idealism epistemology, they emphasize that the key lies in the conclusion of idealism. The second view is that there is no crisis in physics at all. For example, some people say that the "crisis" does not happen in physics, but in philosophical epistemology. Some people say that the crisis is not caused by natural science itself, but the result of idealism and agnosticism invading the field of natural science. l .NdNv0
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The second view is obviously wrong. First of all, it completely violates the historical facts of the development of physics mentioned above, which is the most fundamental point. In fact, the crisis of physics is an inevitable phenomenon in the development of physics itself. It is the result of sharp and irreconcilable contradiction between new revolutionary discoveries and old basic concepts and principles, rather than the result of the invasion of idealism and agnosticism into the field of natural science. You know, physics has been attacked by idealism and agnosticism not only in the gestation period, but also from the first day of its birth (even without getting rid of theological concepts), and has been attacked since then, but physics is not always in a state of crisis. It can be seen that the invasion of idealism and agnosticism into physics is not the root cause of the physics crisis. /uV & lt； qAYF
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Secondly, the concept of "crisis-revolution" in scientific development (forgive me for using this word to represent Scientific Outlook on Development of Poincare and others) is in line with the development reality of some scientific departments in a certain historical period. According to historical facts, Poincare, who first put forward the crisis of physics, thinks that the current crisis of physics is the crisis of physics itself, and its essence is the sharp contradiction between the new experimental facts and the basic principles of classical physics (Carnot principle, relativity principle, Newton principle, lavoisier principle and Meyer principle), which cannot be solved within the old theoretical framework. Poincare believes that the history of physics development shows us that physics experienced a crisis (the crisis of central force physics) before that, which prompted us to "abandon old ideas" and push physics to a new stage (principle physics). Poincare pointed out that the current principle physics is facing a crisis again, and the way out of the crisis lies in: "Mechanics must give way to a broader concept, which will explain mechanics, but mechanics can't explain it." ! V}$zJi
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Einstein, known as the great innovator of natural science, not only realized that there were two serious crises in classical physics at the turn of the century, but also expounded his "crisis-revolution" Scientific Outlook on Development many times later. In Einstein's view, almost all the great progress in science is due to the crisis of the old theory and the fierce conflict between reality and our understanding, which forces us to eliminate deep-rooted prejudice and create new ideas and theories, thus leading to the scientific revolution. Einstein wrote an article in August 1922, entitled "On the Modern Crisis of Theoretical Physics". In this paper, he pointed out that some basic concepts and basic assumptions (basic principles) constitute the basis of physics. "The progress of science will cause profound changes in its foundation", "In the past twenty years, it has been clearly shown that this foundation of physics ... can't resist the impact of new experimental data", and it "even has internal contradictions" (crisis) with the experiment, thus marking that "the whole foundation of physics may need fundamental reform" (revolution). Einstein's comments are very insightful. ^TaA^s.
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Kuhn, a contemporary historian and philosopher of science, further systematized the concept of "crisis-revolution". In The Structure of Scientific Revolution, Kuhn not only regards "crisis" as an important link in his dynamic model of scientific development (pre-science → conventional science → crisis → scientific revolution → new conventional science ……), but also discusses "crisis" at a considerable length. In Kuhn's view, when an abnormal phenomenon reaches the point where it seems to be another difficult problem of conventional science, it begins to turn into a crisis and is very scientific. When a paradigm begins to blur, all crises begin, and all crises end with the emergence of new candidates for the paradigm and the subsequent struggle to accept it. Crisis is an important stage in the process of scientific development and a prelude to the birth of new theories. The significance of this crisis is that it may show that it is time to change tools. Crisis is a necessary prerequisite for the emergence of new theories. Only by recognizing the crisis and its root causes can we resolutely abandon the old theoretical framework, consciously seek a new theoretical framework, and rebuild a new theoretical system on this basis. On the contrary, if we can't see the root cause and seriousness of the crisis, it is difficult to feel the necessity and urgency of changing the old theoretical basis. At most, it can only be tinkered with within the framework of the old theory, and even the new phenomena, revolutionary new concepts and new theories discovered by others that touch the foundation of the old theory are opposed to heresy. Those who can't tolerate the crisis have undoubtedly been forced to give up science. Kuhn's thought is worthy of affirmation and reference, physics