During this period, China people's attitude towards western things changed from initial rejection to gradual acceptance of western learning, and even demanded "total westernization". In the process of western learning spreading to the east, western philosophy, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medicine and modern education are used as media, and trading ports such as Macao and Hong Kong and Japan are important windows.
Edit this paragraph in two stages.
1, the arrival of Jesuit missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.
During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, with the arrival of Jesuit missionaries, China's academic thought was touched. At this time, the science and technology in the West began to develop rapidly, while the science and technology in China developed very slowly, lagging far behind Europe at the same time. Missionaries not only spread Christian teachings, but also introduced a lot of science and technology. At that time, some scholars and emperors in China accepted scientific and technological knowledge, but their thoughts were basically unaffected. At this stage, western learning spread to the east, due to the prohibition of Yongzheng.
At this time, the introduction of western learning was mainly based on the translation of western scientific works by missionaries and some China people. 1605, Matteo Ricci compiled Gankun Tiyi, which was called "the beginning of the spread of western learning to China" by the editor of Sikuquanshu. At that time, the influence on China was mainly in astronomy, mathematics and cartography, because it was only circulated among a few literati classes, and most of them were hidden in the palace.
2. Before and after the Opium War until before and after the May 4th Movement.
/kloc-Around the middle of the 0/9th century, westerners began to re-enter China, bringing new knowledge from the west through various media. However, stimulated by the Opium War and the allied forces of Britain and France, the Qing government started the Westernization Movement in A.D. 1860, which also prompted the western science and technology to be introduced to China again. At that time, westerners in China mainly adopted "middle school as the body and western learning as the application". However, he mainly focused on the transportation of western advanced weapons and related equipment, and did not try to learn western academic thoughts. Therefore, the introduction of academic ideas in this period was mainly through the media founded by western missionaries and books translated and introduced by westernization institutions for military purposes.
After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, because China was facing the fate of national ruin and family ruin, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a number of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared. They learned a lot from the west about natural science and social science and demanded political reform. During this period, a great deal of western knowledge was introduced into China, which had a very wide influence. Many people accepted western learning by translating books written by Japanese. During the Republic of China, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to put forward the idea of total westernization, which had a great influence during the May 4th Movement. This wave of western learning spreading to the east has continued to the present age.
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(1) people from western China.
Westerners, including missionaries, diplomats and officials. , influenced the spread of western learning to the east.
1, missionary
Missionaries played a very important role in the wave of western learning spreading eastward in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. At that time, missionaries who were mainly Catholic Jesuits (later Franciscans, Dominicans and other priests) tried to introduce Catholicism into China, and at the same time introduced western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of western academic books, among which Matteo Ricci, Giulio Aleni, Tang Ruowang and others played an important role.
/kloc-in the 9th century, western learning spread to the east, Protestant priests began to enter China, and Catholic priests also traveled around with the opening of ports. They founded missionary schools and hospitals, publishing houses, periodicals and translated a large number of books, which made great contributions to the spread of western learning to the east.
2. Others from western China
Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media to introduce western learning, such as the influence of General Gordon on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Administration of Customs and Taxation, was influential in introducing western management system, book translation and the earliest western military band.
(2) China people who go abroad
1, travelers, businessmen and diplomats
At the end of Ming and the beginning of Qing Dynasty, many China people went to Europe with missionaries, but they did not leave relevant words in the early stage, so it had little influence on the introduction of western culture. The earliest record is that Shou-Li Fan (1682- 1753) went to Rome with four missionaries during the Kangxi period and wrote a book "Seeing the corpse", describing the political system, architecture and customs in Europe. Many China scholars who were skeptical about Matteo Ricci and others' works began to change their views. After traveling in Europe during the Qianlong period, Xie, a businessman, wrote A Record of the Sea, which recorded European trade, technology, people's life and world geography. This book is more widely known.
After the Opium War, more China people went abroad by themselves. In the1840s, businessman Lin Zhen wrote about The Journey to the West and described his trip to Europe and America. Wang Tao, a famous political thinker in modern times, traveled to Europe in 1867. In 1870, he published two books, An Introduction to France and The Battle of Popularizing Law. 1879' s trip to Japan influenced his various ideas. 1876, Li Gui, a businessman, went to the United States to attend the Expo and wrote a book, A New Record of Traveling Around the World, which became the first narrator of China people traveling around the world and introduced the development of American academic science and technology.
Due to the implementation of the Westernization Movement, the Qing government sent officials such as Bin Chun to Europe 12 in 1866, and wrote travel notes. From 1868 to 1870, Manchu zhigang officially went to Europe and America for the first time. He wrote about his first trip to Taixi. In addition, in his early years, he visited Zhang Deyi, a classmate of Wentong Museum in Binchun, and traveled to Europe many times. He wrote seven books, * * *, which described the social and academic culture in Europe in depth.
After Guangxu began to set up envoys abroad, more important officials and intellectuals went to Europe and America to write travel notes, and because envoys stayed longer than ordinary travelers, they could have a deeper understanding of western ideology and culture, among which Guo Songtao, Liu Xihong, Xu, Xue Fucheng and others had a great influence on China's ideology and culture. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Chinese and foreign traffic was open, and going abroad became a common phenomenon, so I won't go into details.
2. International students
China's modern overseas students began after the Opium War. Most of the early overseas students were students from missionary schools in Hong Kong and Macao, and further developed abroad. Hong Rong went to Yale University from 65438 to 0850, and Huang Kuan went to Edinburgh University from 65438 to 0848.
That is, one of the representatives of early international students. Hong Rong felt the lack of social culture in China during his study, so after returning home, he hoped that more people would go abroad to learn western things. At his suggestion, the Qing government finally selected the first batch of young children to study in the United States in 1872, and selected the second batch the following year. After graduating from high school, they mainly studied western military and industrial technology. Although they were recruited by the Qing government, and the Qing government changed its policy in 188 1, they contributed to the introduction of western learning and also affected the study of foreign students in the future. The most famous ones are Zhan Tianyou, Tang He.
On the other hand, from 65438 to 0875, students from Fujian Shipyard and Beiyang Naval Academy were sent to study in European countries one after another, which contributed to the study of the western navy in the late Qing Dynasty, but Yan Fu, the most famous of them, had a great influence on the introduction of other western learning, not the military.
Compared with the Westernization Movement, the number of international students is mostly official, and the number is small and sporadic. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, there was a wave of studying in Japan, and a large number of students studying in Japan were sponsored by the government and went by the people themselves, which was of great help to Japan in learning western learning. In addition, after 1900, the number of international students studying in the United States increased greatly because the United States returned part of boxer indemnity as funds for studying in the United States. In France, around 19 12 years ago, Li Shizeng and Cai Yuanpei initiated work-study programs, which made many people stay in France. These large numbers of foreign students have direct contact with western education, enabling them to introduce western learning to China more directly.
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Media is a way to quickly spread the western learning learned by a few intellectuals to more people. In the spread of western learning to the east in modern times, the most important media are books, periodicals and newspapers.
1, the publication and circulation of books
The translation and writing of western books is a very important medium for the spread of western learning to the east. For various published books and introductions, see the following list of books and related contents of various disciplines. This paper mainly discusses the publication and circulation of books.
During the spreading of western learning to the east in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, although a large number of books co-authored and translated by priests and scholars appeared, these books failed to attract the attention of the general society at that time and failed to enter the developed commercial publishing industry in the late Ming Dynasty. Therefore, although western books are printed and published, they are mainly circulated among a few interested scholars.
Since the beginning of19th century, western church organizations began to publish a large number of books in western languages. For example, in 1843, the British missionary maddox founded the Mohai Library in Shanghai. Mohai Library has published a number of books on western politics, science and religion, such as The New Testament, A Brief Introduction to the Great American Federation, A New Edition of Natural History and a new edition.
1887 guangxue society, composed of missionaries and foreign businessmen, is another important publishing institution of western learning, which has published and translated a large number of books on politics, science and technology, history, geography and law. Especially after 1895, it became an important source of thought for Kang Youwei and other reformists.
Another important translation and publishing institution was established by the Qing government under the promotion of the Westernization Movement. Among them, Shanghai Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, translated the most books and had the greatest influence, especially in science and technology. The Wentong Museum in Beijing has the greatest influence on books on public international law, chemistry and law. In addition, Fuzhou Shipping Bureau, Kaiping Mining Bureau, Tianjin Machinery Bureau and Shanghai Guang.
Private publishing houses in China started from the Commercial Press established by 1897. For commercial reasons, they pay attention to the introduction of popular knowledge and the new textbooks published in line with the promotion of new education. At the same time, because their publishing houses have branches and sales outlets all over the country, they have made great contributions to spreading new knowledge of western learning to a wider public. Later they were founded in 19 12.
With regard to the circulation of books, in addition to bookstores, various libraries also began to promote in the Reform Movement, hoping to change the traditional situation that China officials kept books privately and were not good at circulation. At the earliest time, reformists set up societies all over the country to open books to the public, among which, in addition to traditional academic books, many western books were borrowed. 1902 requires public libraries to set up libraries in university auditoriums. 1905, the first large public library in Hunan was established, with a large collection of western languages. Later, provinces were gradually established. In the Republic of China, public libraries and private libraries were more developed and played an important role in spreading new knowledge to the people.
2. periodicals
Compared with books, magazines and newspapers play an important role in spreading the latest western knowledge because they are published regularly.
Most of the periodicals in the early late Qing Dynasty were church periodicals. The earliest periodical in China is the monthly magazine Examining the Worldliness, which was founded by British Jesuits Ma Lixun and milian in Malacca. 18 15. Although it was not published in China, many of them spread to China. In China, the monthly examination of East and West was set up by the Dutch priest Karl gutzlaff in 1833. The content introduces western culture, news, literature, etc. In the following decades, missionaries founded various periodicals one after another, but most of them didn't last long (five years is a long time) and their circulation had little influence. From 65438 to 0853, James Legge and Mai Huatuo were founded in Hong Kong, far from home. 1854, American missionary margot founded Chinese and foreign bulletin in Ningbo. 1857, Mohai Library published the Chinese periodical Liuhe Congtan; 1862, English Jesuits founded Miscellanies of China and the West in Shanghai; American pastor Lin Lezhi (young)
John
Allen founded The Church of China (1874), which introduced all kinds of western knowledge widely, lasted for a long time and had a large circulation. It was an important medium to spread western learning in the late Qing Dynasty. 1938 +0872 The Selected Works of China, founded by Beijing Kyoto Stone Hospital, is the earliest periodical in Beijing. In addition, it is also one of the earliest periodicals in Beijing. 19670.6886868866 17
Gezhi Compilation, founded by john fryer in Shanghai, is the first scientific journal in China, which has a great influence on the introduction of western scientific knowledge.
Stimulated by the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 1895, a large number of periodicals founded by China people emerged, which were mostly used to publicize western political thoughts and academics. The earliest ones are 1895' s Wan Guo Bulletin founded by Kang Youwei (with the same name as that founded by Lin Lezhi), 1896' s Qiangkan, and the current affairs newspaper founded by Liang Qichao in the same year. After the failure of the Reform Movement of 1898, Qingyi Newspaper was founded in Yokohama, Japan in 1898, and was later stopped by fire in 190 1 year. At the same time, revolutionary groups have people's newspapers in Japan. The dispute between the two newspapers aroused readers' enthusiastic participation in political affairs and their understanding of many western political, economic and social theories.
The success of the Revolution of 1911 reduced the upsurge of political periodicals in the late Qing Dynasty. New Youth, founded in 19 15, represents a new periodical with cultural discussion as its main purpose. New Youth and other similar periodicals had a great influence on the introduction of western ideas in the Republic of China.
3. newspapers
Compared with periodicals, newspapers are mostly reportable and commercial, lacking in in-depth knowledge. However, because of their quick publication time and large circulation, they help to spread western knowledge and news widely. Among the most influential newspapers, the earliest is the Shanghai New Newspaper, which was founded in Shanghai by British businessman Pickwood in 186 1. Its contents include news and business news. And the introduction of western science and technology. 1864 Chinese and foreign bulletin, current affairs catalogue and Chen Dexi newspaper were published in Hong Kong. Later, another western businessman Ernest Major (Ernest
Major) founded Shenbao on 1872, which became an important newspaper in the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China. Although its content is mainly news and anecdotes, it also includes reports on western thoughts and news, as well as discussions on the contact between Chinese and western cultures in readers' contributions (the famous dispute between railways and geomantic omen). 1874, Wang Tao founded Circular Daily-World in Hong Kong.
Before 1895, the influence of modern newspapers was limited to coastal port areas. However, after 1895, the circulation of these newspapers increased greatly. For example, the layout of Shenbao increased, the distribution area expanded, and more newspapers began to compete, including Shanghai News, Time and Tianjin Ta Kung Pao. Moreover, newspapers began to attract more readers from the early classical Chinese to more words close to spoken English. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, many vernacular newspapers appeared all over the country, which had a great influence on the spread of new western ideas.
Edit this passage from the new school.
In the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the priest giulio aleni introduced the school system of European countries to China, but scholars at that time did not pay attention to it and did not affect the education in China.
In the wave of western learning spreading to the east in the late Qing Dynasty, new western-style schools began to be gradually established and became an important medium for learning western learning. Most of the early western-style schools were run by westerners, especially by churches. The earliest school was Mary Johnson School, 1839 was established in Macau, and a similar school was established in Guangzhou, the only port at that time. After the Opium War, missionary schools were widely established at various ports, and further developed inland after the Tianjin Treaty. It has become an important channel for the early spread of western learning among the people. Gezhi Academy was founded by Xu Shou and John Flair in 1876. It was an early academy that taught western natural science.
In the Westernization Movement, in order to cultivate relevant talents, the Qing government also began to set up new schools, the earliest being the Wentong Pavilion in Beijing and the Cantonese Pavilion in Shanghai. Later, western-style schools specializing in astronomy, electricity, medicine and military affairs were established all over the country. During this period, missionary schools also developed further and began to dilute the religious color of schools, which played an important role in the spread of western learning.
Stimulated by the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 and advocated by the Reform Movement of 1898, a large number of new schools appeared, and a large number of traditional academies were changed into new schools. 1905 the abolition of the imperial examination made traditional private schools lose their main role and go into decline or transformation. In the late Qing Dynasty, the New Deal formally adopted the western academic system to standardize schools at all levels, and the content of learning western learning was more extensive.
Edit the role of concessions in Hong Kong, Macao and other ports in this paragraph.
Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court in the late Ming Dynasty. Therefore, in the process of spreading western learning to the east in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty, western missionaries often used Macau as a relay station, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the mainland of China. Many China people who dealt with westerners also studied western languages and cultures in Macau.
184 1 year, Hong Kong was ceded to Britain in treaty of nanking, which made Hong Kong replace Macau to a great extent and become a bridge between China and the West. China people who emigrated to Hong Kong were exposed to the British political system, laws, customs, academic culture and so on. In this environment, many intellectuals with new ideas were born in modern China, including Wang Tao, He Qi, Hong Rengan and others.
With the signing of the unequal treaties between the Qing Dynasty and western countries, the treaty port concessions in various places were gradually established, resulting in many channels of cultural exchange between China and the West, especially in the Shanghai Concession. People living in the Concession were more directly exposed to the new western scientific and technological things, the western-style political and legal system, the capitalist economy, the western-style media, and so many new intellectuals in modern times. They were all influenced by western learning because they lived in Shanghai. In addition, comprador businessmen who are active in various ports have become a group of people who started to contact western languages and cultural customs earlier because of business needs. For example, Zheng, who advocates parliamentary democracy, is a businessman from Guangdong port area.